Members Can Post Anonymously On This Site
Ariane 6: launch system tests progressing well
-
Similar Topics
-
-
-
By NASA
SpaceX A SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket with the company’s Dragon spacecraft on top is seen during sunrise on the launch pad at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida on Tuesday, March 11, 2025, ahead of the agency’s SpaceX Crew-10 launch.
NASA astronauts Anne McClain, Nichole Ayers, JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) astronaut Takuya Onishi, and Roscosmos cosmonaut Kirill Peskov will lift off from Launch Complex 39A at NASA Kennedy. Once aboard the International Space Station, the Crew-10 members will conduct new scientific research to prepare for human exploration beyond low Earth orbit and benefit humanity on Earth. The crew is scheduled to conduct material flammability tests for future spacecraft designs, engage with students via ham radio and use its existing hardware to test a backup lunar navigation solution, and participate in an integrated study to better understand physiological and psychological changes to the human body to provide valuable insights for future deep space missions.
Watch the launch live on NASA+. Coverage begins at 3:45 p.m. EDT on March 12, 2025, with launch scheduled for 7:48 p.m. EDT.
Image credit: SpaceX
View the full article
-
By NASA
6 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
Risks Concept Risk is inherent in human spaceflight. However, specific risks can and should be understood, managed, and mitigated to reduce threats posed to astronauts. Risk management in the context of human spaceflight can be viewed as a trade-based system. The relevant evidence in life sciences, medicine, and engineering is tracked and evaluated to identify ways to minimize overall risk to the astronauts and to ensure mission success. The Human System Risk Board (HSRB) manages the process by which scientific evidence is utilized to establish and reassess the postures of the various risks to the Human System during all of the various types of existing or anticipated crewed missions. The HSRB operates as part of the Health and Medical Technical Authority of the Office of the Chief Health and Medical Officer of NASA via the JSC Chief Medical Officer.
The HSRB approaches to human system risks is analogous to the approach the engineering profession takes with its Failure Mode and Effects Analysis in that a process is utilized to identify and address potential problems, or failures to reduce their likelihood and severity. In the context of risks to the human system, the HSRB considers eight missions which different in their destinations and durations (known as Design Reference Missions [DRM]) to further refine the context of the risks. With each DRM a likelihood and consequence are assigned to each risk which is adjusted scientific evidence is accumulated and understanding of the risk is enhanced, and mitigations become available or are advanced.
Human System Risks This framework enables the principles of Continuous Risk Management and Risk Informed Decision Making (RIDM) to be applied in an ongoing fashion to the challenges posed by Human System Risks. Using this framework consistently across the 29 risks allows management to see where risks need additional research or technology development to be mitigated or monitored and for the identification of new risks and concerns. Further information on the implementation of the risk management process can be found in the following documents:
Human System Risk Management Plan – JSC-66705 NASA Health and Medical Technical Authority (HMTA) Implementation – NPR 7120.11A NASA Space Flight Program and Project Management Requirements – NPR 7120.5 Human System Risk Board Management Office
The HSRB Risk Management Office governs the execution of the Human System Risk management process in support of the HSRB. It is led by the HSRB Chair, who is also referred to as the Risk Manager.
Risk Custodian Teams
Along with the Human System Risk Manager, a team of risk custodians (a researcher, an operational researcher or physician, and an epidemiologist, who each have specific expertise) works together to understand and synthesize scientific and operational evidence in the context of spaceflight, identify and evaluate metrics for each risk in order to communicate the risk posture to the agency.
Directed Acyclic Graphs
Summary
The HSRB uses Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAG), a type of causal diagramming, as visual tools to create a shared understanding of the risks, improve communication among those stakeholders, and enable the creation of a composite risk network that is vetted by members of the NASA community and configuration managed (Antonsen et al., NASA/TM– 20220006812). The knowledge captured is the Human Health and Performance community’s knowledge about the causal flow of a human system risk, and the relationships that exist between the contributing factors to that risk.
DAGs are:
Intended to improve communication between: Managers and subject matter experts who need to discuss human system risks Subject matter experts in different disciplines where human system risks interact with one another in a potentially cumulative fashion Visual representations of known or suspected relationships Directed – the relationship flows in one direction between any two nodes Acyclic – cycles in the graph are not allowed Example of a Directed Acyclic Graph. This is a simplified illustration of how and the individual, the crew, and the system contribute to the likelihood of successful task performance in a mission. Individual readiness is affected by many of the health and performance-oriented risks followed by the HSRB, but the readiness of any individual crew is complemented by the team and the system that the crew works within. Failures of task performance may lead to loss of mission objectives if severe.NASA View Larger (Example of a Directed Acyclic Graph) Image
Details
At NASA, the Human System Risks have historically been conceptualized as deriving from five Hazards present in the spaceflight environment. These are: altered gravity, isolation and confinement, radiation, a hostile closed environment, and distance from Earth. These Hazards are aspects of the spaceflight environment that are encountered when someone is launched into space and therefore are the starting point for causal diagramming of spaceflight-related risk issues for the HSRB.
These Hazards are often interpreted in relation to physiologic changes that occur in humans as a result of the exposure; however, interaction between human crew (behavioral health and performance), which may be degraded due to the spaceflight environment – and the vehicle and mission systems that the crew must operate – can also be influenced by these Hazards.
Each Human System Risk DAG is intended to show the causal flow of risk from Hazards to Mission Level Outcomes. As such, the structure of each DAG starts with at least one Hazard and ends with at least one of the pre-defined Mission Level Outcomes. In between are the nodes and edges of the causal flow diagrams that are relevant to the Risk under consideration. These are called ‘contributing factors’ in the HSRB terminology, and include countermeasures, medical conditions, and other Human System Risks. A graph data structure is composed of a set of vertices (nodes), and a set of edges (links). Each edge represents a relationship between two nodes. There can be two types of relationships between nodes: directed and undirected. For example, if an edge exists between two nodes A and B and the edge is undirected, it is represented as A–B, (no arrow). If the edge were directed, for example from A to B, then this is represented with an arrow (A->B). Each directed arrow connecting one node to another on a DAG indicates a claim of causality. A directed graph can potentially contain a cycle, meaning that, from a specific node, there exists a path that would eventually return to that node. A directed graph that has no cycles is known as acyclic. Thus, a graph with directed links and no cycles is a DAG. DAGs are a type of network diagram that represent causality in a visual format.
DAGs are updated with the regular Human System Risk updates generally every 1-2 years. Approved DAGs can be found in the NASA/TP 20220015709 below or broken down under each Human System Risk.
Documents
Directed Acyclic Graph Guidance Documentation – NASA/TM 20220006812 Directed Acyclic Graphs: A Tool for Understanding the NASA Human Spaceflight System Risks – NASA/TP 20220015709 Publications
npj Microgravity – Causal diagramming for assessing human
system risk in spaceflight
Apr 22, 2024
PDF (3.09 MB)
npj Microgravity –
Levels of evidence for human system risk
evaluation
Apr 22, 2024
PDF (2.47 MB)
npj Microgravity –
Updates to the NASA human system risk management process
for space exploration
Apr 22, 2024
PDF (2.24 MB)
Points of Contact
Mary Van Baalen
Dan Buckland
Bob Scully
Kim Lowe
Human System Risks Share
Details
Last Updated Mar 11, 2025 EditorRobert E. LewisLocationJohnson Space Center Related Terms
Human Health and Performance Human System Risks Explore More
1 min read Concern of Venous Thromboembolism
Article 31 mins ago 1 min read Risk of Acute and Chronic Carbon Dioxide Exposure
Article 30 mins ago 1 min read Risk of Adverse Cognitive or Behavioral Conditions and Psychiatric Disorders
Article 30 mins ago Keep Exploring Discover More Topics From NASA
Humans In Space
Missions
International Space Station
Solar System
View the full article
-
By NASA
Explore This Section Earth Home Earth Observer Home Editor’s Corner Feature Articles Meeting Summaries News Science in the News Calendars In Memoriam More Archives 13 min read
The NASA DC-8 Retires: Reflections on its Contributions to Earth System Science
Introduction
Since 1987, a highly modified McDonnell Douglas DC-8 aircraft has been a workhorse in NASA’s Airborne Science Program (ASP)—see Photo 1. The aircraft, located at NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center (AFRC) in California, flew countless missions as a science laboratory, producing science data that supports projects serving the world’s scientific community, particularly the NASA Earth science community. NASA recently decided to retire the venerable DC-8 aircraft, which made its last science flight in April 2024. The DC-8 is being replaced with a similarly refurbished Boeing 777 aircraft, which will be even more capable than the DC-8.
Photo 1. NASA’s DC-8 flying laboratory flew Earth science missions for NASA’s. Airborne Science Program (ASP) from 1987–2024. The versatile aircraft was used to conduct a variety of research experiments that spanned all seven continents. Photo credit: Lori Losey [NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center (AFRC)] More information is available about the full history of ASP, its primary objectives, and its many achievements in an archived article: see “Flying in the ‘Gap’ Between Earth and Space: NASA’s Airborne Science Program” [The Earth Observer, September–October 2020, 32:5, 4–14].
Workshop Overview
The NASA History Office and NASA Earth Science Division cohosted a workshop, titled “Contributions of the DC-8 to Earth System Science at NASA,” on October 24–25, 2024 at the Mary W. Jackson NASA Headquarters (HQ) Building in Washington, DC – see Photo 2.
The agenda included not just the DC-8’s contributions to Earth Science at NASA, but also its role supporting the Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate and work in space science. Many DC-8 veterans – including several who are now retired – attended the event in person or online. The program consisted of six panels and roundtables, each calling attention to a unique aspect of the DC-8 story.
Photo 2. Group photo of the in person and remote participants of the workshop on “Contributions of the DC-8 to Earth System Science at NASA,” which took place October 24–25, 2024 at the Mary W. Jackson NASA Headquarters (HQ) Building in Washington, DC. Photo credit: Rafael Luis Méndez Peña [NASA’s Ames Research Center, Earth Science Program Office] The event featured 38 individuals (speakers, panelists, and moderators) from NASA HQ, five NASA centers, eight universities, the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence Institute, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. In addition, Spanish filmmaker Rafael Luis Méndez Peña debuted a trailer for his documentary film, NASA-817, on October 24 and took photographs during the workshop. The ??? agenda a workshop recording ???, and other related materials are available through the NASA History Office.
The Tale of the NASA DC-8
The article follows the outline of the workshop that places the DC-8 in the context of the overall history of NASA aircraft observations, science campaigns, community, and international collaboration, education and outreach activities.
A History in Context: the DC-8 and NASA’s Airborne Science Program
NASA’s involvement in airborne science extends to the agency’s inception. The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 states that NASA’s first objective shall be “the expansion of human knowledge of phenomena in the atmosphere and space.” Subsequent legislation expanded NASA’s role in atmospheric and Earth system science. To fulfill this objective, NASA maintains a fleet of airborne platforms through ASP – see Figure –to study the environment, develop new technologies, verify satellite data, and monitor space vehicle activity.
Figure. The DC-8 was but one aircraft is NASA’s sizeable Airborne Science Fleet – which is maintained and operated by ASP. Note that in addition to a variety of piloted aircraft operating at different altitudes shown in this drawing, NASA also operates uncrewed aircraft systems and even uses kites to conduct Earth observations. Figure credit: NASA Science Suborbital Platforms, NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Science Support Office NASA operated two large flying laboratories prior to the DC-8 Airborne Science Laboratory. Both aircraft were converted Convair (CV) 990s. Regrettably, both aircraft succumbed to catastrophic accidents. The first, known as Galileo, collided with a U.S. Navy P-3 Orion near Moffett Field, CA, in April 1973, killing 11 NASA personnel. Its replacement, Galileo II, crashed on takeoff at March Air Force Base in July 1985. While there were no fatalities in the second accident, the ensuing fire consumed the aircraft and its instruments. The loss of Galileo II left a gaping hole in NASA’s ability to conduct essential scientific and engineering research.
In January 1986, after months of bureaucratic scrambling, NASA finalized the purchase of former commercial airliner (DC-8-72) for $24 million, which included costs to modify the aircraft to carry a science payload and crew. The modified DC-8 Airborne Science Laboratory—shown in Photo 2— arrived at NASA Ames Research Center during the Summer of 1987.
Overview Presentations on Airborne Science
Jack Kaye [NASA Headquarters—Associate Director for Research of the Earth Science Division] gave the meeting’s opening remarks, where he placed the DC-8’s activities in a larger perspective. He noted that one of the features that makes airborne science so unique at NASA is the combination of platforms, sensors, systems, people, and opportunities. The DC-8 was able to carry a large number of people as well as instruments to carry out long-range operations under diverse conditions.
“[The DC-8 offered] a really versatile, flexible platform that’s allowed for lots of science,” said Kaye.
Later in the meeting, Karen St. Germain [NASA Headquarters—Director of the Earth Science Division] built upon Kaye’s comments. She noted that while NASA’s satellite missions receive most of the public’s attention, airborne science is an essential part of the NASA mission.
“This is the grassroots of science,” she stressed. “It’s where a lot of the great ideas are born. It’s where a lot of the fledgling sensor technologies are demonstrated.”
First Flight for the DC-8
NASA routinely conducts field campaigns – where ground observations are timed and coordinated with aircraft flights (often at more than one altitude) and with satellite overpasses to gain a comprehensive (multilayered, multiscale) picture of the atmosphere over a certain area. A more detailed account of two NASA field campaigns from the 1980s and 1990s, and their follow-up missions, is available in an archived article: see “Reflections on FIFE and BOREAS: Historical Perspective and Meeting Summary” [The Earth Observer, January–February 2017, 29:1, 6–23]. The article illustrates scaled observations as they were conducted during FIFE and BOREAS.
Researchers first used the DC-8 Airborne Science Laboratory on a high-profile interagency field campaign – Antarctic Airborne Ozone Expedition (AAOE), the first airborne experiment to study the chemistry and dynamics of the Antarctic ozone hole. The scientific data collected during AAOE produced unequivocable evidence that human-made chemicals were involved in the destruction of ozone over the Antarctic. This data served as a major impetus toward the enactment of amendments to the Montreal Protocol, which banned the manufacture of chlorofluorocarbons.
Estelle Condon [NASA’s Ames Research Center (ARC), emeritus] was a program manager for AAOE. During the meeting, she shared her memories of the hectic days leading up to the DC-8’s first mission.
“There was an enormous task in front of [the aircraft team] – just a huge task – to get all the relay racks, all the wiring, all the ports for the windows designed and built so that when the scientists finally came, all that instrumentation could actually be put on the aircraft,” said Condon. She added that the ARC staff worked day and night and every weekend to make the plane ready.
“It’s a miracle that they were able to put everything together and get it to the tip of South America in time for the mission,” she said.
Other Noteworthy Field Campaigns Involving the DC-8
The DC-8 would go on to be used in many other field campaigns throughout its 37-year history
and was central to several of NASA’s research disciplines. For example, Michael Kurylo [NASA Headquarters—Atmospheric Composition Program Scientist] was the manager of NASA’s Upper Atmosphere Research Program, where he developed, promoted, and implemented an extramural research program in stratospheric and upper tropospheric composition and directed its advanced planning at a national and international level. Kurylo summarized the DC-8’s many flights to study stratospheric chemistry beyond the AAOE missions.
Kurylo also discussed the DC-8’s role in tropospheric chemistry investigations, especially through the many field campaigns that were conducted as part of the Global Troposphere Experiment (GTE). He also touched on the culture of NASA airborne science and the dynamic that existed between scientists and those who operated and maintained the aircraft. “The scientists were always referred to [by NASA pilots and groundcrew] as ‘coneheads’…. Too much college, not enough high school,” Kurylo explained. But he and his colleagues have such fond memories of their time spent working together onboard the DC-8.
James Crawford [NASA’s Langley Research Center], a project scientist for many of the GTE campaigns, explained that from 1983–2001 16 GTE aircraft-based missions, each with its own name and location, took place. Each mission collected a rich set of data records of atmospheric observations and on many occasions the data were used as baselines for subsequent campaigns. The DC-8 was one of several NASA aircraft involved, the others being the Corvair-990, Electra, and P-3B.
Joshua Schwarz [NOAA’s Chemical Sciencc Laboratory] discussed the airplane’s role in global atmospheric monitoring. He recall thinking, after his first experience with the DC-8 that this flying airborne laboratory, “…was going to make things possible that wouldn’t otherwise be possible,” Schwarz concluded after his first encounter with the DC-8.
Other workshop participants went on to describe how – for nearly four decades – investigators used data collected by instruments on the DC-8 to conduct research and write papers on important scientific and engineering topics.
The People Behind the Aircraft: The DC-8 Community
The DC-8 was a large and durable aircraft capable of long-range flights, which made it ideal for conducting scientific research. Around these research efforts a strong community emerged. Over three decades, the DC-8 accommodated many investigators from NASA, interagency offices, U.S. universities, and international organizations on extended global missions. Agency officials also moved the DC-8 base of operations several times between 1986 and 2024, thereby demanding tremendous cross-center cooperation.
“Looking around the room, it’s clear that what brought us together [for the workshop] is more than just an aircraft,” said Nickelle Reid [NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center]. “It’s been a shared commitment, decades of passion and dedication from scientists, yes, but also mechanics, technicians, integration engineers, project managers, mission planners, operations engineers, flight engineers, mission directors, mission managers, logistics technicians and, of course, pilots. This village of people has been the beating heart of the DC-8 program.”
This DC-8 community was well represented at this workshop and played a key role in its success.
The DC-8 as a Means of International Engagement
The DC-8 community expanded beyond the U.S., opening unique opportunities for international engagement. The campaigns of the DC-8 Airborne Science Laboratory routinely involved foreign students, institutions, and governments. For example, the Korea–U.S. Air Quality (KORUS-AQ) campaign, an international cooperative air quality field study in Korea, took place in 2016. For more information about this campaign, see the archived Earth Observer article, “Flying in the ‘Gap’ Between Earth and Space: NASA’s Airborne Science Program” [The Earth Observer, September–October 2022, 32:5, 4–14].
Yunling Lou [NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory] spoke to the workshop audience about the value of international collaboration.
“I think [international collaboration] really helped – not just doing the collaboration [to accomplish a specific mission] but doing the training, the capacity building in these countries to build the community of global scientists and engineers,” said Lou.
Trina Dryal [LaRC—Deputy Director] continued that the DC-8 and NASA’s other airborne assets are more than just science laboratories.
“[They] are opportunities for science, diplomacy, international collaboration, cross learning, educational inspiration, and goodwill,” said Dryal—see Photo 3.
Photo 3. International collaborations included educational endeavors. Here, Walter Klein [AFRC—DC-8 Mission Manager] poses with a group of Chilean students onboard the DC-8 Airborne Science Laboratory in Punta Arenas, Chile, March 2004. Photo credit: Jim Closs [NASA’s Langley Research Center] Student Investigations on the DC-8
Closer to home, the flying scientific laboratory affected the lives of many U.S. students and early career professionals. NASA’s Student Airborne Research Program (SARP), is an eight-week summer internship for rising-senior undergraduates that takes place annually on the East and West coasts of the U.S – see Photo 4. During the program, students gain hands-on experience conducting all aspects of a scientific campaign. They conduct field research, analyze the data, and gain access to one or more of NASA’s ASP flying science laboratories. Since 2009, this program alone has provided hands on experience in conducting NASA Earth science research to XXXX students.
Berry Lefer [NASA Headquarters—Tropospheric Composition Program Manager] pointed out that SARP helped to integrate American students into DC-8 scientific missions.
“I want to make sure the NASA historians understand that the DC-8 is the premier flying laboratory on the planet, bar none,” said Lefer. “You’ve seen over the whole three-decade life of the DC-8 that education and outreach, student involvement has been a hallmark of the DC-8 [program].”
Yaitza Luna-Cruz [NASA Headquarters—Program Executive] was one among several SARP alumni who delivered testimony on the impact of the SARP program at the workshop.
“SARP unleashed my potential in ways that I cannot even describe,” said Luna-Cruz. “You never know what a single opportunity could do to shape the career of a student or early career researcher.
Luna-Cruz hopes these efforts continue with the coming of NASA’s new Boeing 777 airborne laboratory.
Photo 4. One of the most popular student investigations flown on the DC-8 (and other ASP aircraft) was (is) the Student Airborne Research Program (SARP), in which upper-level undergraduate students can gain valuable hands-on experience conducting field research. Students taking part in SARP and their mentors posed with the DC-8 at AFRC in 2019 [top] and in 2022 [bottom]. The 2022 SARP group flew flights over California’s Central Valley to study air quality. Photo credit: [Top] NASA; [bottom] Lauren Hughes [ARC] Final Flight and Retirement of the DC-8
The DC-8 Airborne Science Laboratory flew its last science flight during the international Airborne and Satellite Investigation of Asian Air Quality mission (ASIA-AQ) in April 2024. Since its final flight, the aircraft has been retired to Idaho State University (ISU). Today, students in ISU’s aircraft maintenance program work on the airplane to develop real-world technical skills – continuing the DC-8’s mission as an educational platform. According to Gerald Anhorn [ISU—Dean of College of Technology], ISU students have a unique opportuning to gain experience working on a legendary research aircraft.
“Our students have that opportunity because of [NASA’s] donation” to the school, said Auborn.
Conclusion: Flying Toward the Future – From DC-8 to Boeing 777
While the DC-8 is retiring from active service, airborne observations continue to be a vital part of NASA’s mission. The agency recently acquired a Boeing 777and will modify it to support its ongoing airborne scientific research efforts. This new addition expands beyond the capacity of the DC-8 by allowing for even longer flights with larger payloads and more researchers to gather data. Several members of the Boeing 777 team from NASA’s Langley Research Center (LaRC) attended the workshop.
“I mentioned I was in charge of the ‘replacement’ for the DC-8,” said Martin Nowicki [LaRC—Boeing 777 Lead]. “Over the last two days, here, it’s become pretty apparent that there’s no ‘replacing’ the DC-8. It’s carved out its own place in history. It’s just done so much.”
Nowicki looks forward to working with workshop participants to identify useful lessons of the past for future operators. He concluded that the Boeing 777 will carry the legacy of the DC-8 and continue with capturing the amazing science of ASP.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Jack Kaye [NASA HQ—Associate Director of Research for the Earth Science Division] for his helpful reviews of the article draft. The first author also wishes to thank Lisa Frazier [NASA Headquarters—Strategic Events and Engagement Lead] for providing support and assistance throughout for the in-person workshop participants. and to the Earth Science Project Office team from NASA’s Ames Research Center, who performed essential conference tasks, such as website construction, audio-visual support, and food service management. This article is an enhanced version of the first author’s summary, which appeared in the Spring 2025 issue of News & Notes – The NASA History Office’s newsletter.
Bradley L. Coleman
NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA History Office
bradley.l.coleman@nasa.gov
Alan B. Ward
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center/Global Science & Technology Inc.
alan.b.ward@nasa.gov
Share
Details
Last Updated Mar 11, 2025 Related Terms
Earth Science View the full article
-
-
Check out these Videos
Recommended Posts
Join the conversation
You can post now and register later. If you have an account, sign in now to post with your account.
Note: Your post will require moderator approval before it will be visible.