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By NASA
2 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
How can I see the northern lights?
To see the northern lights, you need to be in the right place at the right time.
Auroras are the result of charged particles and magnetism from the Sun called space weather dancing with the Earth’s magnetic field. And they happen far above the clouds. So you need clear skies, good space weather at your latitude and the higher, more polar you can be, the better. You need a lot of patience and some luck is always helpful.
A smartphone can also really help confirm whether you saw a little bit of kind of dim aurora, because cameras are more sensitive than our eyes.
The best months to see aurorae, statistically, are March and September. The best times to be looking are around midnight, but sometimes when the Sun is super active, it can happen any time from sunset to sunrise.
You can also increase your chances by learning more about space weather data and a great place to do that is at the NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center.
You can also check out my project, Aurorasaurus.org, where we have free alerts that are based on your location and we offer information about how to interpret the data. And you can also report and tell us if you were able to see aurora or not and that helps others.
One last tip is finding a safe, dark sky viewing location with a great view of the northern horizon that’s near you.
[END VIDEO TRANSCRIPT]
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Last Updated Mar 26, 2025 Related Terms
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By NASA
5 min read
Atomic Layer Processing Coating Techniques Enable Missions to See Further into the Ultraviolet
Astrophysics observations at ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths often probe the most dynamic aspects of the universe. However, the high energy of ultraviolet photons means that their interaction with the materials that make up an observing instrument are less efficient, resulting in low overall throughput. New approaches in the development of thin film coatings are addressing this shortcoming by engineering the coatings of instrument structures at the atomic scale.
Researchers at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) are employing atomic layer deposition (ALD) and atomic layer etching (ALE) to enable new coating technologies for instruments measuring ultraviolet light. Conventional optical coatings largely rely on physical vapor deposition (PVD) methods like evaporation, where the coating layer is formed by vaporizing the source material and then condensing it onto the intended substrate. In contrast, ALD and ALE rely on a cyclic series of self-limiting chemical reactions that result in the deposition (or removal) of material one atomic layer at a time. This self-limiting characteristic results in a coating or etchings that are conformal over arbitrary shapes with precisely controlled layer thickness determined by the number of ALD or ALE cycles performed.
The ALD and ALE techniques are common in the semiconductor industry where they are used to fabricate high-performance transistors. Their use as an optical coating method is less common, particularly at ultraviolet wavelengths where the choice of optical coating material is largely restricted to metal fluorides instead of more common metal oxides, due to the larger optical band energy of fluoride materials, which minimizes absorption losses in the coatings. Using an approach based on co-reaction with hydrogen fluoride, the team at JPL has developed a variety of fluoride-based ALD and ALE processes.
(left) The Supernova remnants and Proxies for ReIonization Testbed Experiment (SPRITE) CubeSat primary mirror inside the ALD coating facility at JPL, the mirror is 18 cm on the long and is the largest optic coated in this chamber to-date. (right) Flight optic coating inside JPL ALD chamber for Pioneers Aspera Mission. Like SPRITE, the Aspera coating combines a lithium fluoride process developed at NASA GSFC with thin ALD encapsulation of magnesium fluoride at JPL. Image Credit: NASA-JPL In addition to these metal-fluoride materials, layers of aluminum are often used to construct structures like reflective mirrors and bandpass filters for instruments operating in the UV. Although aluminum has high intrinsic UV reflectance, it also readily forms a surface oxide that strongly absorbs UV light. The role of the metal fluoride coating is then to protect the aluminum surface from oxidation while maintaining enough transparency to create a mirror with high reflectance.
The use of ALD in this context has initially been pursued in the development of telescope optics for two SmallSat astrophysics missions that will operate in the UV: the Supernova remnants and Proxies for ReIonization Testbed Experiment (SPRITE) CubeSat mission led by Brian Fleming at the University of Colorado Boulder, and the Aspera mission led by Carlos Vargas at the University of Arizona. The mirrors for SPRITE and Aspera have reflective coatings that utilize aluminum protected by lithium fluoride using a novel PVD processes developed at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, and an additional very thin top coating of magnesium fluoride deposited via ALD.
Team member John Hennessy prepares to load a sample wafer in the ALD coating chamber at JPL. Image Credit: NASA JPL The use of lithium fluoride enables SPRITE and Aspera to “see” further into the UV than other missions like NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, which uses only magnesium fluoride to protect its aluminum mirror surfaces. However, a drawback of lithium fluoride is its sensitivity to moisture, which in some cases can cause the performance of these mirror coatings to degrade on the ground prior to launch. To circumvent this issue, very thin layers (~1.5 nanometers) of magnesium fluoride were deposited by ALD on top of the lithium fluoride on the SPRITE and Aspera mirrors. The magnesium fluoride layers are thin enough to not strongly impact the performance of the mirror at the shortest wavelengths, but thick enough to enhance the stability against humidity during ground phases of the missions. Similar approaches are being considered for the mirror coatings of the future NASA flagship Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO).
Multilayer structures of aluminum and metal fluorides can also function as bandpass filters (filters that allow only signals within a selected range of wavelengths to pass through to be recorded) in the UV. Here, ALD is an attractive option due to the inherent repeatability and precise thickness control of the process. There is currently no suitable ALD process to deposit aluminum, and so additional work by the JPL team has explored the development of a custom vacuum coating chamber that combines the PVD aluminum and ALD fluoride processes described above. This system has been used to develop UV bandpass filters that can be deposited directly onto imaging sensors like silicon (Si) CCDs. These coatings can enable such sensors to operate with high UV efficiency, but low sensitivity to longer wavelength visible photons that would otherwise add background noise to the UV observations.
Structures composed of multilayer aluminum and metal fluoride coatings have recently been delivered as part of a UV camera to the Star-Planet Activity Research CubeSat (SPARCS) mission led by Evgenya Shkolnik at Arizona State University. The JPL-developed camera incorporates a delta-doped Si CCD with the ALD/PVD filter coating on the far ultraviolet channel, yielding a sensor with high efficiency in a band centered near 160 nm with low response to out-of-band light.
A prototype of a back-illuminated CCD incorporating a multi-layer metal-dielectric bandpass filter coating deposited by a combination of thermal evaporation and ALD. This coating combined with JPL back surface passivation approaches enable the Si CCD to operate with high UV efficiency while rejecting longer wavelength light. Image credit: NASA JPL Next, the JPL team that developed these coating processes plans to focus on implementing a similar bandpass filter on an array of larger-format Si Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) sensors for the recently selected NASA Medium-Class Explorer (MIDEX) UltraViolet EXplorer (UVEX) mission led by Fiona Harrison at the California Institute of Technology, which is targeted to launch in the early 2030s.
For additional details, see the entry for this project on NASA TechPort
Project Lead: Dr. John Hennessy, Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)
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Last Updated Mar 18, 2025 Related Terms
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By NASA
4 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
El avión de investigación F-15D de la NASA está posicionado junto al X-59 durante las pruebas de compatibilidad electromagnética en la Planta 42 de las Fuerzas Aéreas de EE.UU. en Palmdale, California. Los investigadores activaron el radar, el transpondedor de banda C y las radios del F-15D a diferentes distancias del X-59 para evaluar las posibles interferencias electromagnéticas con los sistemas críticos de vuelo de la aeronave, garantizando que el X-59 pueda operar de forma segura con otras aeronaves. Estas pruebas demostraron que la integración de la aeronave está madurando y superó un importante obstáculo que la acerca un paso más al primer vuelo.NASA/Carla Thomas Read this story in English here.
El silencioso avión supersónico de investigación X-59 de la NASA ha superado las pruebas electromagnéticas, confirmando que sus sistemas funcionarán juntos de forma segura y sin interferencias a través de diferentes escenarios.
“Alcanzar esta fase demuestra que la integración de la aeronave está avanzando,” dijo Yohan Lin, jefe de aviónica del X-59 de la NASA. “Es emocionante ver el progreso, sabiendo que hemos superado un gran obstáculo que nos acerca al primer vuelo del X-59.”
Las interferencias electromagnéticas ocurren cuando una fuente de campo eléctrico o magnético afecta a las operaciones de una aeronave, pudiendo afectar la seguridad. Estas interferencias, ya sean de una fuente externa o de los propios equipos de la aeronave, pueden alterar las señales electrónicas que controlan los sistemas críticos – similar a los efectos que produce la estática en un radio de un aparato emisor cercano, como un teléfono.
Las pruebas, realizadas en las instalaciones del contratista Lockheed Martin Skunk Works en Palmdale, California, garantizaron que los sistemas de a bordo del X-59 – como radios, equipos de navegación y sensores – no interfirieran entre sí ni causaran problemas inesperados. Durante estas pruebas, los ingenieros activaron cada sistema de la aeronave uno a la vez mientras monitoreaba los otros sistemas para detectar posibles interferencias.
El avión supersónico silencioso de investigación X-59 de la NASA ha superado con éxito las pruebas de interferencia electromagnética (EMI, por su acrónimo ingles) en Lockheed Martin Skunk Works, en Palmdale (California). Durante las pruebas EMI, el equipo examinó cada uno de los sistemas electrónicos internos del X-59, asegurándose de que funcionaban entre sí sin interferencias. El X-59 está diseñado para volar más rápido que la velocidad del sonido, reduciendo el estruendo fuerte a un estampido sónico más silencioso.NASA/Carla Thomas “Estas pruebas nos ayudaron a determinar si los sistemas del X-59 interfieren entre sí,” explicó Lin. “En esencia, activamos un sistema y monitorizamos el otro para detectar ruidos, fallos o errores.”
El X-59 generará un estampido más silencioso en lugar de un estruendo fuerte mientras vuela más rápido que la velocidad del sonido. La aeronave es la pieza central de la misión Quesst de la NASA, que proporcionará a los reguladores información que podría ayudar a levantar las prohibiciones actuales de los vuelos supersónicos comerciales sobre tierra. Actualmente, la aeronave está siendo sometida a pruebas en tierra para garantizar su seguridad y rendimiento. Recientemente se han completado con éxito una serie de pruebas de motor. Las pruebas de interferencias electromagnéticas para examinar los sistemas electrónicos internos del X-59 siguieron.
En otras pruebas de interferencias electromagnéticas, el equipo examinó el funcionamiento del tren de aterrizaje del X-59, asegurándose de que este componente crítico puede extenderse y retraerse sin afectar a otros sistemas. También probaron que el cierre de interruptor de combustible funcionara correctamente sin interferencias.
Durante estas pruebas también se evaluó la compatibilidad electromagnética, para garantizar que los sistemas del X-59 funcionen correctamente cuando eventualmente vuele cerca de aviones de investigación de la NASA.
El piloto de pruebas de la NASA Jim Less se prepara para salir de la cabina del silencioso avión supersónico X-59 entre las pruebas de interferencia electromagnética (EMI). Las pruebas EMI garantizan el correcto funcionamiento de los sistemas del avión en diversas condiciones de radiación electromagnética. El X-59 es la pieza central de la misión Quesst de la NASA, diseñada para demostrar la tecnología supersónica.NASA/Carla Thomas Los investigadores colocaron el X-59 en el suelo frente al F-15D de la NASA, a una distancia de 47 pies y luego a 500 pies. La proximidad de las dos aeronaves reproducía las condiciones necesarias para que el F-15D utilice una sonda especial para recopilar mediciones sobre las ondas de choque que producirá el X-59.
“Queremos confirmar que hay compatibilidad entre los dos aviones, incluso a corta distancia,” dijo Lin.
Para las pruebas de compatibilidad electromagnética, el equipo encendió el motor del X-59 al mismo tiempo que encendía el radar del F-15D, el transpondedor de radar de banda C y los radios. Los datos del X-59 se transmitieron al Centro de Operaciones Móviles de la NASA, donde el personal de la sala de control y los ingenieros observaron si se producían anomalías.
“Lo primero que hay que hacer es descubrir cualquier posible interferencia electromagnética o problema de compatibilidad electromagnética en tierra,” explica Lin. “Esto reduce el riesgo y nos asegura que no nos enteremos de los problemas en el aire.”
Ahora que han concluido las pruebas electromagnéticas, el X-59 está listo para pasar a las pruebas de pájaro de hierro virtual (una estructura que se utiliza para probar los sistemas de una aeronave en un laboratorio, simulando un vuelo real), en las que se introducirán datos en el avión bajo condiciones normales y de fallo, y después a las pruebas de rodaje antes del vuelo.
Artículo Traducido por: Priscila Valdez
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Last Updated Mar 12, 2025 EditorDede DiniusContactNicolas Cholulanicolas.h.cholula@nasa.govLocationArmstrong Flight Research Center Related Terms
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By NASA
Earth (ESD) Earth Explore Explore Earth Science Climate Change Science in Action Multimedia Image Collections Videos Data For Researchers About Us 8 Min Read Going With the Flow: Visualizing Ocean Currents with ECCO
The North American Gulf Stream as illustrated with the ECCO model. Credits:
Greg Shirah/NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio Historically, the ocean has been difficult to model. Scientists struggled in years past to simulate ocean currents or accurately predict fluctuations in temperature, salinity, and other properties. As a result, models of ocean dynamics rapidly diverged from reality, which meant they could only provide useful information for brief periods.
In 1999, a project called Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean (ECCO) changed all that. By applying the laws of physics to data from multiple satellites and thousands of floating sensors, NASA scientists and their collaborators built ECCO to be a realistic, detailed, and continuous ocean model that spans decades. ECCO enabled thousands of scientific discoveries, and was featured during the announcement of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2021.
NASA ECCO is a powerful integrator of decades of ocean data, narrating the story of Earth’s changing ocean as it drives our weather, and sustains marine life.
The ECCO project includes hundreds of millions of real-world measurements of temperature, salinity, sea ice concentration, pressure, water height, and flow in the world’s oceans. Researchers rely on the model output to study ocean dynamics and to keep tabs on conditions that are crucial for ecosystems and weather patterns. The modeling effort is supported by NASA’s Earth science programs and by the international ECCO consortium, which includes researchers from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California and eight research institutions and universities.
The project provides models that are the best possible reconstruction of the past 30 years of the global ocean. It allows us to understand the ocean’s physical processes at scales that are not normally observable.
ECCO and the Western Boundary Currents
Western boundary currents stand out in white in this visualization built with ECCO data. Download this visualization from NASA Goddard’s Scientific Visualization Studio. Credits: Greg Shirah/NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio Large-scale wind patterns around the globe drag ocean surface waters with them, creating complex currents, including some that flow toward the western sides of the ocean basins. The currents hug the eastern coasts of continents as they head north or south from the equator: These are the western boundary currents. The three most prominent are the Gulf Stream, Agulhas, and Kuroshio. NASA Goddard’s Scientific Visualization Studio.
The North American Gulf Stream as illustrated with the ECCO model. Download this visualization from NASA Goddard’s Scientific Visualization Studio. Credits: Greg Shirah/NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio Seafarers have known about the Gulf Stream — the Atlantic Ocean’s western boundary current — for more than 500 years. By the volume of water it moves, the Gulf Stream is the largest of the western boundary currents, transporting more water than all the planet’s rivers combined.
In 1785, Benjamin Franklin added it to maritime charts showing the current flowing up from the Gulf, along the eastern U.S. coast, and out across the North Atlantic. Franklin noted that riding the current could improve a ship’s travel time from the Americas to Europe, while avoiding the current could shorten travel times when sailing back.
A visualization built of ECCO data reveals a cold, deep countercurrent that flows in the opposite direction of the warm Gulf Stream above it. Download this visualization from NASA Goddard’s Scientific Visualization Studio. Credits: Greg Shirah/NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio Franklin’s charts showed a smooth Gulf Stream rather than the twisted, swirling path revealed in ECCO data. And Franklin couldn’t have imagined the opposing flow of water below the Gulf Stream. The countercurrent runs at depths of about 2,000 feet (600 meters) in a cold river of water that is roughly the opposite of the warm Gulf Stream at the surface. The submarine countercurrent is clearly visible when the upper layers in the ECCO model are peeled away in visualizations.
The Gulf Stream is a part of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), which moderates climate worldwide by transporting warm surface waters north and cool underwater currents south. The Gulf Stream, in particular, stabilizes temperatures of the southeastern United States, keeping the region warmer in winter and cooler in summer than it would be without the current. After the Gulf Stream crosses the Atlantic, it tempers the climates of England and the European coast as well.
The Agulhas current originates along the equator in the Indian Ocean, travels down the western coast of Africa, and spawns swirling Agulhas rings that travel across the Atlantic toward South America. Download this visualization from NASA Goddard’s Scientific Visualization Studio. Credits: Greg Shirah/NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio The Agulhas Current flows south along the western side of the Indian Ocean. When it reaches the southern tip of Africa, it sheds swirling vortices of water called Agulhas Rings. Sometimes persisting for years, the rings glide across the Atlantic toward South America, transporting small fish, larvae, and other microorganisms from the Indian Ocean.
Researchers using the ECCO model can study Agulhas Current flow as it sends warm, salty water from the tropics in the Indian Ocean toward the tip of South Africa. The model helps tease out the complicated dynamics that create the Agulhas rings and large loop of current called a supergyre that surrounds the Antarctic. The Southern Hemisphere supergyre links the southern portions of other, smaller current loops (gyres) that circulate in the southern Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. Together with gyres in the northern Atlantic and Pacific, the southern gyres and Southern Hemisphere supergyre influence climate while transporting carbon around the globe.
The Kuroshio Current flows on the western side of the Pacific Ocean, past the east coast of Japan, east across the Pacific, and north toward the Arctic. Along the way, it provides warm water to drive seasonal storms, while also creating ocean upwellings that carry nutrients that sustain fisheries off the coasts of Taiwan and northern Japan. Download this visualization from NASA Goddard’s Scientific Visualization Studio. Credits: Greg Shirah/NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio In addition to affecting global weather patterns and temperatures, western boundary currents can drive vertical flows in the oceans known as upwellings. The flows bring nutrients up from the depths to the surface, where they act as fertilizer for phytoplankton, algae, and aquatic plants.
The Kuroshio Current that runs on the west side of the Pacific Ocean and along the east side of Japan has recently been associated with upwellings that enrich coastal fishing waters. The specific mechanisms that cause the vertical flows are not entirely clear. Ocean scientists are now turning to ECCO to tease out the connection between nutrient transport and currents like the Kuroshio that might be revealed in studies of the water temperature, density, pressure, and other factors included in the ECCO model.
Tracking Ocean Temperatures and Salinity
When viewed through the lens of ECCO’s temperature data, western boundary currents carry warm water away from the tropics and toward the poles. In the case of the Gulf Stream, as the current moves to far northern latitudes, some of the saltwater freezes into salt-free sea ice. The saltier water left behind sinks and then flows south all the way toward the Antarctic before rising and warming in other ocean basins.
Colors indicate temperature in this visualization of ECCO data. Warm water near the equator is bright yellow. Water cools when it flows toward the poles, indicated by the transition to orange and red shades farther from the equator. Download this visualization from NASA Goddard’s Scientific Visualization Studio. Credits: Greg Shirah/NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio Currents also move nutrients and salt throughout Earth’s ocean basins. Swirling vortexes of the Agulhas rings stand out in ECCO temperature and salinity maps as they move warm, salty water from the Indian Ocean into the Atlantic.
The Mediterranean Sea has a dark red hue that indicates its high salt content. Other than the flow through the narrow Strait of Gibraltar, the Mediterranean is cut off from the rest of the world’s oceans. Because of this restricted flow, salinity increases in the Mediterranean as its waters warm and evaporate, making it one of the saltiest parts of the global ocean. Download this visualization from NASA Goddard’s Scientific Visualization Studio. Credits: Greg Shirah/NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio Experimenting with ECCO
ECCO offers researchers a way to run virtual experiments that would be impractical or too costly to perform in real oceans. Some of the most important applications of the ECCO model are in ocean ecology, biology, and chemistry. Because the model shows where the water comes from and where it goes, researchers can see how currents transport heat, minerals, nutrients, and organisms around the planet.
In prior decades, for example, ocean scientists relied on extensive temperature and salinity measurements by floating sensors to deduce that the Gulf Stream is primarily made of water flowing past the Gulf rather than through it. The studies were time-consuming and expensive. With the ECCO model, data visualizers at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, virtually replicated the research in a simulation that was far quicker and cheaper.
A simulation built with data from the ECCO model shows that very little of the water in the gulf contributes to the water flowing in the Gulf Stream.
Download this visualization from NASA Goddard’s Scientific Visualization Studio. Credits: Atousa Saberi/NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio The example illustrated here relies on ECCO to track the flow of water by virtually filling the Gulf with 115,000 particles and letting them move for a year in the model. The demonstration showed that less than 1% of the particles escape the Gulf to join the Gulf Stream.
Running such particle-tracking experiments within the ocean circulation models helps scientists understand how and where environmental contaminants, such as oil spills, can spread.
Take an ECCO Deep Dive
Today, researchers turn to ECCO for a broad array of studies. They can choose ECCO modeling products that focus on one feature – such as global flows or the biology and chemistry of the ocean – or they can narrow the view to the poles or specific ocean regions. Every year, more than a hundred scientific papers include data and analyses from the ECCO model that delve into our oceans’ properties and dynamics.
Credits: Kathleen Gaeta Greer/ NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio Composed by James Riordon / NASA’s Earth Science News Team
Information in this piece came from the resources below and interviews with the following sources: Nadya Vinogradova Shiffer, Dimitris Menemenlis, Ian Fenty, and Atousa Saberi.
References and Sources
Liao, F., Liang, X., Li, Y., & Spall, M. (2022). Hidden upwelling systems associated with major western boundary currents. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 127(3), e2021JC017649.
Richardson, P. L. (1980). The Benjamin Franklin and Timothy Folger charts of the Gulf Stream. In Oceanography: The Past: Proceedings of the Third International Congress on the History of Oceanography, held September 22–26, 1980 at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, USA on the occasion of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the founding of the Institution (pp. 703-717). New York, NY: Springer New York.
Biastoch, A., Rühs, S., Ivanciu, I., Schwarzkopf, F. U., Veitch, J., Reason, C., … & Soltau, F. (2024). The Agulhas Current System as an Important Driver for Oceanic and Terrestrial Climate. In Sustainability of Southern African Ecosystems under Global Change: Science for Management and Policy Interventions (pp. 191-220). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Lee-Sánchez, E., Camacho-Ibar, V. F., Velásquez-Aristizábal, J. A., Valencia-Gasti, J. A., & Samperio-Ramos, G. (2022). Impacts of mesoscale eddies on the nitrate distribution in the deep-water region of the Gulf of Mexico. Journal of Marine Systems, 229, 103721.
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Last Updated Mar 03, 2025 Editor Michael Carlowicz Contact James Riordon Related Terms
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