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    • By NASA
      5 min read
      Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
      Watersheds on the U.S. Eastern Seaboard will be among the areas most affected by underground saltwater intrusion by the year 2100 due to sea level rise and changes in groundwater supplies, according to a NASA-DOD study. NASA’s Terra satellite captured this image on April 21, 2023. Intrusion of saltwater into coastal groundwater can make water there unusable, damage ecosystems, and corrode infrastructure.
      Seawater will infiltrate underground freshwater supplies in about three of every four coastal areas around the world by the year 2100, according to a recent study led by researchers at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California. In addition to making water in some coastal aquifers undrinkable and unusable for irrigation, these changes can harm ecosystems and corrode infrastructure.
      Called saltwater intrusion, the phenomenon happens below coastlines, where two masses of water naturally hold each other at bay. Rainfall on land replenishes, or recharges, fresh water in coastal aquifers (underground rock and soil that hold water), which tends to flow below ground toward the ocean. Meanwhile, seawater, backed by the pressure of the ocean, tends to push inland. Although there’s some mixing in the transition zone where the two meet, the balance of opposing forces typically keeps the water fresh on one side and salty on the other.
      Now, two impacts of climate change are tipping the scales in favor of salt water. Spurred by planetary warming, sea level rise is causing coastlines to migrate inland and increasing the force pushing salt water landward. At the same time, slower groundwater recharge — due to less rainfall and warmer weather patterns — is weakening the force moving the underground fresh water in some areas.
      Worldwide Intrusion
      Saltwater intrusion will affect groundwater in about three of every four coastal aquifers around the world by the year 2100, a NASA-DOD study estimates. Saltwater can make groundwater in coastal areas undrinkable and useless for irrigation, as well as harm ecosystems and corrode infrastructure.NASA/JPL-Caltech The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters in November, evaluated more than 60,000 coastal watersheds (land area that channels and drains all the rainfall and snowmelt from a region into a common outlet) around the world, mapping how diminished groundwater recharge and sea level rise will each contribute to saltwater intrusion while estimating what their net effect will be.
      Considering the two factors separately, the study’s authors found that by 2100 rising sea levels alone will tend to drive saltwater inland in 82% of coastal watersheds studied. The transition zone in those places would move a relatively modest distance: no more than 656 feet (200 meters) from current positions. Vulnerable areas include low-lying regions such as Southeast Asia, the coast around the Gulf of Mexico, and much of the United States’ Eastern Seaboard.  
      Meanwhile, slower recharge on its own will tend to cause saltwater intrusion in 45% of the coastal watersheds studied. In these areas, the transition zone would move farther inland than it will from sea level rise — as much as three-quarters of a mile (about 1,200 meters) in some places. The regions to be most affected include the Arabian Peninsula, Western Australia, and Mexico’s Baja California peninsula. In about 42% of coastal watersheds, groundwater recharge will increase, tending to push the transition zone toward the ocean and in some areas overcoming the effect of saltwater intrusion by sea level rise.
      All told, due to the combined effects of changes in sea level and groundwater recharge, saltwater intrusion will occur by century’s end in 77% of the coastal watersheds evaluated, according to the study.
      Generally, lower rates of groundwater recharge are going to drive how far saltwater intrudes inland, while sea level rise will determine how widespread it is around the world. “Depending on where you are and which one dominates, your management implications might change,” said Kyra Adams, a groundwater scientist at JPL and the paper’s lead author. 
      For example, if low recharge is the main reason intrusion is happening in one area, officials there might address it by protecting groundwater resources, she said. On the other hand, if the greater concern is that sea level rise will oversaturate an aquifer, officials might divert groundwater.
      Global Consistency
      Co-funded by NASA and the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD), the study is part of an effort to evaluate how sea level rise will affect the department’s coastal facilities and other infrastructure. It used information on watersheds collected in HydroSHEDS, a database managed by the World Wildlife Fund that uses elevation observations from the NASA Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. To estimate saltwater intrusion distances by 2100, the researchers used a model accounting for groundwater recharge, water table rise, fresh- and saltwater densities, and coastal migration from sea level rise, among other variables.
      Study coauthor Ben Hamlington, a climate scientist at JPL and a coleader of NASA’s Sea Level Change Team, said that the global picture is analogous to what researchers see with coastal flooding: “As sea levels rise, there’s an increased risk of flooding everywhere. With saltwater intrusion, we’re seeing that sea level rise is raising the baseline risk for changes in groundwater recharge to become a serious factor.”
      A globally consistent framework that captures localized climate impacts is crucial for countries that don’t have the expertise to generate one on their own, he added.
      “Those that have the fewest resources are the ones most affected by sea level rise and climate change,” Hamlington said, “so this kind of approach can go a long way.”
      News Media Contacts
      Andrew Wang / Jane J. Lee
      Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
      626-379-6874 / 818-354-0307
      andrew.wang@jpl.nasa.gov / jane.j.lee@jpl.nasa.gov 
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    • By NASA
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      ESI24 Nam Quadchart
      SungWoo Nam
      University of California, Irvine
      Lunar dust may seem unimposing, but it presents a significant challenge for space missions. Its abrasive and jagged particles can damage equipment, clog devices, and even pose health risks to astronauts. This project addresses such issues by developing advanced coatings composed of crumpled nano-balls made from atomically thin 2D materials such as MoS₂, graphene, and MXenes. By crumpling these nanosheets—much like crumpling a piece of paper—we create compression and aggregation resistant particles that can be dispersed in sprayable solutions. As a thin film coating, these crumpled nano-balls form corrugated structures that passively reduce dust adhesion and surface wear. The deformable crumpled nano-ball (DCN) coating works by minimizing the contact area between lunar dust and surfaces, thanks to its unique nano-engineered design. The 2D materials exhibit exceptional durability, withstanding extreme thermal and vacuum environments, as well as resisting radiation damage. Additionally, the flexoelectric and electrostatically dissipative properties of MoS₂, graphene, and MXenes allow the coating to neutralize and dissipate electrical charges, making them highly responsive to the charged lunar dust environment. The project will be executed in three phases, each designed to bring the technology closer to real-world space applications. First, we will synthesize the crumpled nano-balls and investigate their adhesion properties using advanced microscopy techniques. The second phase will focus on fundamental testing in simulated lunar environments, where the coating will be exposed to extreme temperatures, vacuum, radiation, and abrasion. Finally, the third phase will involve applying the coating to space-heritage materials and conducting comprehensive testing in a simulated lunar environment, targeting up to 90% dust clearance and verifying durability over repeated cycles of dust exposure. This research aligns with NASA’s goals for safer, more sustainable lunar missions by reducing maintenance requirements and extending equipment lifespan. Moreover, the potential applications extend beyond space exploration, with the technology offering promising advances in terrestrial industries such as aerospace and electronics by providing ultra-durable, wear-resistant surfaces. Ultimately, the project contributes to advancing materials science and paving the way for NASA’s long-term vision of sustainable space exploration.
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      Lunar dust, with its chemical reactivity, electrostatic charge, and potential magnetism, poses a serious threat to astronauts and equipment on the Moon’s surface. To address this, the project proposes developing structured coatings with anisotropic surface features and electrostatic dissipative properties to passively mitigate lunar dust. By analyzing lunar dust-surface interactions at multiple scales, the team aims to optimize the coatings’ surface structures and physical properties, such as Young’s modulus, electrical conductivity, and polarity. The project will examine tribocharging, external electric fields, and the effects of particle shapes and sizes. Numerical sensitivity analyses will complement simulations to better understand lunar dust dynamics. Once fabricated, the coatings will be tested under simulated lunar conditions. The team will employ a state-of-the-art nanoscale force spectroscopy system, using atomic force microsope (AFM) microcantilevers functionalized with regolith to measure dust-surface interactions. Additional experiments will assess particle adhesion and removal, with scanning electron microscopy used to analyze remaining dust. This project aims to provide insights into surface structure effects on dust adhesion, guiding the creation of lightweight, durable coatings for effective dust mitigation. The findings will foster collaborations with NASA and the aerospace industry, while offering training opportunities for students entering the field.
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    • By Space Force
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    • By NASA
      On 5/13/24, in alignment with the NASA Interagency Agreement with the US Department of State Advancing Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math in Bhutan through Increased Earth Observation Capacity, Aparna R. Phalke, Sarah Cox and Tony Kim (ST11) traveled to Thimphu, Bhutan, to represent the SERVIR SCO at the official launch on 5/17/24 of the “Farm Action Toolkit” service (https://crops.servirglobal.net/dashboard/) with the implementing partners from Bhutan Druk Holdings and Investments (DHI) Super Fablab, National Statistical Bureau (NSB), Department of Agriculture, National Center of Organic Agriculture, National Land Commission and GovTech Bhutan. The service was presented with meaningful opening remarks from Manish Rai (DHI), Andrea Goodman (U.S. Department of State), Sangay Dorji (Retired Head of the Environmental Office, Ministry of Economic Affairs) and Tony Kim . Also in attendance were Bhutan Foundation officials in addition to implementing partners. The “Farm Action Toolkit” co-developed by SERVIR and Bhutan’s implementing partners to support their mission on self-sufficiency for food and save operational costs. This service provides field-scale (30-m) crop area and yields related products and algorithms including 2002 to 2023 crop/non crop maps, rice area maps, maize area maps and rice yield estimations.
      Following the launch of the Farm Action Toolkit service in Thimphu, Bhutan, a SERVIR SCO service team led by Aparna Phalke and Bhutan’s implementing partner team from DHI performed field surveys of agricultural fields across the Thimphu, Punakha and Paro area of Bhutan using GPS, and Helmet data collection with GoPro cameras and drones (5/23-25/24). The Helmet data collection with GoPro cameras tool method was replicated from SERVIR’s Applied Science Team PI Catherine Nakalemb’s project in SERVIR-West Africa. The team also interviewed individual farmers from areas covering rice cultivation with pest, disease and water related issues. The implementing partner and SERVIR SCO team also collected market analysis data consisting of fifty plus vendors and vendors cum farmers interviews on agricultural commodities and the supply chain (5/18-19/24). These field surveys will play a significant role in the operation and adoption of the Farm Action Toolkit service by implementing partners
      In-person outreach events were conducted at the Royal Thimphu College and College of Natural Resources, Royal University of Bhutan (RUB) on 5/14/24 and 5/24/24, respectively. Over 100 students from each academic institution participated in the outreach events, which focused on NASA milestones and how to leverage Earth observations to address immediate environmental issues in Bhutan.
      These activities are part of a NASA Interagency Agreement with the US Department of State – Advancing Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math in Bhutan through Increased Earth Observation Capacity – a collaboration that also includes NASA’s DEVELOP, ARSET, and GLOBE programs.
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