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By NASA
9 Min Read Towards Autonomous Surface Missions on Ocean Worlds
Artist’s concept image of a spacecraft lander with a robot arm on the surface of Europa. Credits:
NASA/JPL – Caltech Through advanced autonomy testbed programs, NASA is setting the groundwork for one of its top priorities—the search for signs of life and potentially habitable bodies in our solar system and beyond. The prime destinations for such exploration are bodies containing liquid water, such as Jupiter’s moon Europa and Saturn’s moon Enceladus. Initial missions to the surfaces of these “ocean worlds” will be robotic and require a high degree of onboard autonomy due to long Earth-communication lags and blackouts, harsh surface environments, and limited battery life.
Technologies that can enable spacecraft autonomy generally fall under the umbrella of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and have been evolving rapidly in recent years. Many such technologies, including machine learning, causal reasoning, and generative AI, are being advanced at non-NASA institutions.
NASA started a program in 2018 to take advantage of these advancements to enable future icy world missions. It sponsored the development of the physical Ocean Worlds Lander Autonomy Testbed (OWLAT) at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California and the virtual Ocean Worlds Autonomy Testbed for Exploration, Research, and Simulation (OceanWATERS) at NASA’s Ames Research Center in Silicon Valley, California.
NASA solicited applications for its Autonomous Robotics Research for Ocean Worlds (ARROW) program in 2020, and for the Concepts for Ocean worlds Life Detection Technology (COLDTech) program in 2021. Six research teams, based at universities and companies throughout the United States, were chosen to develop and demonstrate autonomy solutions on OWLAT and OceanWATERS. These two- to three-year projects are now complete and have addressed a wide variety of autonomy challenges faced by potential ocean world surface missions.
OWLAT
OWLAT is designed to simulate a spacecraft lander with a robotic arm for science operations on an ocean world body. The overall OWLAT architecture including hardware and software components is shown in Figure 1. Each of the OWLAT components is detailed below.
Figure 1. The software and hardware components of the Ocean Worlds Lander Autonomy Testbed and the relationships between them. NASA/JPL – Caltech The hardware version of OWLAT (shown in Figure 2) is designed to physically simulate motions of a lander as operations are performed in a low-gravity environment using a six degrees-of-freedom (DOF) Stewart platform. A seven DOF robot arm is mounted on the lander to perform sampling and other science operations that interact with the environment. A camera mounted on a pan-and-tilt unit is used for perception. The testbed also has a suite of onboard force/torque sensors to measure motion and reaction forces as the lander interacts with the environment. Control algorithms implemented on the testbed enable it to exhibit dynamics behavior as if it were a lightweight arm on a lander operating in different gravitational environments.
Figure 2. The Ocean Worlds Lander Autonomy Testbed. A scoop is mounted to the end of the testbed robot arm. NASA/JPL – Caltech The team also developed a set of tools and instruments (shown in Figure 3) to enable the performance of science operations using the testbed. These various tools can be mounted to the end of the robot arm via a quick-connect-disconnect mechanism. The testbed workspace where sampling and other science operations are conducted incorporates an environment designed to represent the scene and surface simulant material potentially found on ocean worlds.
Figure 3. Tools and instruments designed to be used with the testbed. NASA/JPL – Caltech The software-only version of OWLAT models, visualizes, and provides telemetry from a high-fidelity dynamics simulator based on the Dynamics And Real-Time Simulation (DARTS) physics engine developed at JPL. It replicates the behavior of the physical testbed in response to commands and provides telemetry to the autonomy software. A visualization from the simulator is shown on Figure 4.
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Figure 7. Screenshot of OceanWATERS lander on a terrain modeled from the Atacama Desert. A scoop operation has just been completed. NASA/JPL – Caltech The autonomy software module shown at the top in Figure 1 interacts with the testbed through a Robot Operating System (ROS)-based interface to issue commands and receive telemetry. This interface is defined to be identical to the OceanWATERS interface. Commands received from the autonomy module are processed through the dispatcher/scheduler/controller module (blue box in Figure 1) and used to command either the physical hardware version of the testbed or the dynamics simulation (software version) of the testbed. Sensor information from the operation of either the software-only or physical testbed is reported back to the autonomy module using a defined telemetry interface. A safety and performance monitoring and evaluation software module (red box in Figure 1) ensures that the testbed is kept within its operating bounds. Any commands causing out of bounds behavior and anomalies are reported as faults to the autonomy software module.
Figure 5. Erica Tevere (at the operator’s station) and Ashish Goel (at the robot arm) setting up the OWLAT testbed for use. NASA/JPL – Caltech OceanWATERS
At the time of the OceanWATERS project’s inception, Jupiter’s moon Europa was planetary science’s first choice in searching for life. Based on ROS, OceanWATERS is a software tool that provides a visual and physical simulation of a robotic lander on the surface of Europa (see Figure 6). OceanWATERS realistically simulates Europa’s celestial sphere and sunlight, both direct and indirect. Because we don’t yet have detailed information about the surface of Europa, users can select from terrain models with a variety of surface and material properties. One of these models is a digital replication of a portion of the Atacama Desert in Chile, an area considered a potential Earth-analog for some extraterrestrial surfaces.
Figure 6. Screenshot of OceanWATERS. NASA/JPL – Caltech JPL’s Europa Lander Study of 2016, a guiding document for the development of OceanWATERS, describes a planetary lander whose purpose is collecting subsurface regolith/ice samples, analyzing them with onboard science instruments, and transmitting results of the analysis to Earth.
The simulated lander in OceanWATERS has an antenna mast that pans and tilts; attached to it are stereo cameras and spotlights. It has a 6 degree-of-freedom arm with two interchangeable end effectors—a grinder designed for digging trenches, and a scoop for collecting ground material. The lander is powered by a simulated non-rechargeable battery pack. Power consumption, the battery’s state, and its remaining life are regularly predicted with the Generic Software Architecture for Prognostics (GSAP) tool. To simulate degraded or broken subsystems, a variety of faults (e.g., a frozen arm joint or overheating battery) can be “injected” into the simulation by the user; some faults can also occur “naturally” as the simulation progresses, e.g., if components become over-stressed. All the operations and telemetry (data measurements) of the lander are accessible via an interface that external autonomy software modules can use to command the lander and understand its state. (OceanWATERS and OWLAT share a unified autonomy interface based on ROS.) The OceanWATERS package includes one basic autonomy module, a facility for executing plans (autonomy specifications) written in the PLan EXecution Interchange Language, or PLEXIL. PLEXIL and GSAP are both open-source software packages developed at Ames and available on GitHub, as is OceanWATERS.
Mission operations that can be simulated by OceanWATERS include visually surveying the landing site, poking at the ground to determine its hardness, digging a trench, and scooping ground material that can be discarded or deposited in a sample collection bin. Communication with Earth, sample analysis, and other operations of a real lander mission, are not presently modeled in OceanWATERS except for their estimated power consumption. Figure 7 is a video of OceanWATERS running a sample mission scenario using the Atacama-based terrain model.
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Figure 7. Screenshot of OceanWATERS lander on a terrain modeled from the Atacama Desert. A scoop operation has just been completed. NASA/JPL – Caltech Because of Earth’s distance from the ocean worlds and the resulting communication lag, a planetary lander should be programmed with at least enough information to begin its mission. But there will be situation-specific challenges that will require onboard intelligence, such as deciding exactly where and how to collect samples, dealing with unexpected issues and hardware faults, and prioritizing operations based on remaining power.
Results
All six of the research teams funded by the ARROW and COLDTech programs used OceanWATERS to develop ocean world lander autonomy technology and three of those teams also used OWLAT. The products of these efforts were published in technical papers, and resulted in development of software that may be used or adapted for actual ocean world lander missions in the future. The following table summarizes the ARROW and COLDTech efforts.
Principal Investigator (PI) PI Institution Project Testbed Used Purpose of Project ARROW Projects Jonathan Bohren Honeybee Robotics Stochastic PLEXIL (SPLEXIL) OceanWATERS Extended PLEXIL with stochastic decision-making capabilities by employing reinforcement learning techniques. Pooyan Jamshidi University of South Carolina Resource Adaptive Software Purpose-Built for Extraordinary Robotic Research Yields (RASPBERRY SI) OceanWATERS & OWLAT Developed software algorithms and tools for fault root cause identification, causal debugging, causal optimization, and causal-induced verification. COLDTech Projects Eric Dixon Lockheed Martin Causal And Reinforcement Learning (CARL) for COLDTech OceanWATERS Integrated a model of JPL’s mission-ready Cold Operable Lunar Deployable Arm (COLDarm) into OceanWATERS and applied image analysis, causal reasoning, and machine learning models to identify and mitigate the root causes of faults, such as ice buildup on the arm’s end effector. Jay McMahon University of Colorado Robust Exploration with Autonomous Science On-board, Ranked Evaluation of Contingent Opportunities for Uninterrupted Remote Science Exploration (REASON-RECOURSE) OceanWATERS Applied automated planning with formal methods to maximize science return of the lander while minimizing communication with ground team on Earth. Melkior Ornik U Illinois, Urbana-Champaign aDaptive, ResIlient Learning-enabLed oceAn World AutonomY (DRILLAWAY) OceanWATERS & OWLAT Developed autonomous adaptation to novel terrains and selecting scooping actions based on the available image data and limited experience by transferring the scooping procedure learned from a low-fidelity testbed to the high-fidelity OWLAT testbed. Joel Burdick Caltech Robust, Explainable Autonomy for Scientific Icy Moon Operations (REASIMO) OceanWATERS & OWLAT Developed autonomous 1) detection and identification of off-nominal conditions and procedures for recovery from those conditions, and 2) sample site selection Acknowledgements: The portion of the research carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology was performed under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (80NM0018D0004). The portion of the research carried out by employees of KBR Wyle Services LLC at NASA Ames Research Center was performed under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (80ARC020D0010). Both were funded by the Planetary Science Division ARROW and COLDTech programs.
Project Leads: Hari Nayar (NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology), K. Michael Dalal (KBR, Inc. at NASA Ames Research Center)
Sponsoring Organizations: NASA SMD PESTO
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By NASA
8 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
Virtual meetings feeling a little stale? NASA has just unveiled a suite of new Artemis backgrounds to elevate your digital workspace.
From the majesty of the Artemis I launch lighting up the night sky to the iconic image of the Orion spacecraft with the Moon and Earth in view, these virtual backgrounds allow viewers to relive the awe-inspiring moments of Artemis I and glimpse the bright future that lies ahead as the Artemis campaign enables humans to live and work at the Moon’s South Pole region.
Scroll through to download your next virtual background for work, school, or just for fun, and learn about all things Artemis as the agency and its partners cross off milestones leading up to Artemis II and missions beyond.
Artemis I Launch
Credit: NASA/Bill Ingalls NASA’s SLS (Space Launch System) rocket carrying the Orion spacecraft launches on the Artemis I flight test on Nov. 16, 2022, from Launch Complex 39B at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida. NASA’s Artemis I mission was the first integrated flight test of the agency’s deep space exploration systems: the Orion spacecraft, SLS rocket, and ground systems. SLS and Orion launched at 1:47 a.m. EST from Launch Pad 39B at Kennedy.
Artemis II Crew
Credit: NASA Meet the astronauts who will fly around the Moon during the Artemis II mission. From left are Commander Reid Wiseman, Pilot Victor Glover, and Mission Specialist Christina Koch from NASA, and Mission Specialist Jeremy Hansen from the Canadian Space Agency.
Astronaut Regolith
Credit: NASA An artist’s concept of two suited Artemis crew members working on the lunar surface. The samples collected during future Artemis missions will continue to advance our knowledge of the solar system and help us understand the history and formation of Earth and the Moon, uncovering some of the mysteries that have long eluded scientists.
Exploration Ground Systems
Credit: NASA NASA’s mobile launcher, atop Crawler Transporter-2, is at the entrance to High Bay 3 at the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) on Sept. 8, 2018, at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida. This is the first time that the modified mobile launcher made the trip to the pad and the VAB. The mobile launcher is the structure that is used to assemble, process, and launch the SLS rocket.
Credit: NASA/Joel Kowsky NASA’s SLS rocket with the Orion spacecraft aboard is seen atop a mobile launcher at Launch Pad 39B on Nov. 4, 2022, as Crawler Transporter-2 departs the pad following rollout at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida.
Credit: NASA After Orion splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, west of Baja California, the spacecraft was recovered by personnel on the USS Portland from the U.S. Department of Defense, including Navy amphibious specialists, Space Force weather specialists, and Air Force specialists, as well as engineers and technicians from NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida, the agency’s Johnson Space Center in Houston, and Lockheed Martin Space Operations. Personnel from NASA’s Exploration Ground Systems led the recovery efforts.
Credit: NASA/Keegan Barber NASA’s SLS (Space Launch System) rocket with the Orion spacecraft aboard is seen atop a mobile launcher as it rolls out to Launch Complex 39B for the first time on March 17, 2022, at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida. At left is the Vehicle Assembly Building.
First Woman
Credit: NASA “First Woman” graphic novel virtual background featuring an illustration of the inside of a lunar space station outfitted with research racks and computer displays. To learn more about the graphic novel and interactive experiences, visit: nasa.gov/calliefirst/
Credit: NASA “First Woman” graphic novel virtual background featuring the illustration of the inside of a lunar space station outfitted with research racks and computer displays, along with zero-g indicator suited rubber duckies floating throughout. To learn more about the graphic novel and interactive experiences, visit: nasa.gov/calliefirst/
Credit: NASA This “First Woman” graphic novel virtual background features an illustrated scene from a lunar mission. At a lunar camp, one suited astronaut flashes the peace sign while RT, the robot sidekick, waves in the foreground. To learn more about the graphic novel and interactive experiences, visit: nasa.gov/calliefirst/
Gateway
Credit: NASA The Gateway space station hosts the Orion spacecraft and SpaceX’s deep space logistics spacecraft in a polar orbit around the Moon, supporting scientific discovery on the lunar surface during the Artemis IV mission.
Credit: Northrop Grumman and Thales Alenia Space The Gateway space station’s HALO (Habitation and Logistics Outpost) module, one of two of Gateway’s habitation elements where astronauts will live, conduct science, and prepare for lunar surface missions, successfully completed welding in Turin, Italy. Following a series of tests to ensure its safety, the future home for astronauts will travel to Gilbert, Arizona, for final outfitting ahead of launch to lunar orbit. Gateway will be humanity’s first space station in lunar orbit and is an essential component of the Artemis campaign to return humans to the Moon for scientific discovery and chart a path for human missions to Mars.
Lunar Surface
Credit: SpaceX Artist’s concept of SpaceX Starship Human Landing System, or HLS, which is slated to transport astronauts to and from the lunar surface during Artemis III and IV.
Credit: Blue Origin Artist’s concept of Blue Origin’s Blue Moon MK-2 human lunar lander, which is slated to land astronauts on the Moon during Artemis V.
Credit: NASA The “Moon buggy” for NASA’s Artemis missions, the Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV), is seen here enabling a pair of astronauts to explore more of the Moon’s surface and conduct science research farther away from the landing site. NASA has selected Intuitive Machines, Lunar Outpost, and Venturi Astrolab to advance capabilities for an LTV.
Credit: JAXA/Toyota An artist’s concept of the pressurized rover — which is being designed, developed, and operated by JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) — is seen driving across the lunar terrain. The pressurized rover will serve as a mobile habitat and laboratory for the astronauts to live and work for extended periods of time on the Moon.
Logo
Credit: NASA The NASA “meatball” logo. The round red, white, and blue insignia was designed by employee James Modarelli in 1959, NASA’s second year. The design incorporates references to different aspects of NASA’s missions.
Credit: NASA The NASA meatball logo (left) and Artemis logo side by side.
Moon Phases
Credit: NASA The different phases of the Moon, shown in variations of shadowing, extend across this virtual background.
Orion
Credit: NASA On flight day 5 during Artemis I, the Orion spacecraft took a selfie while approaching the Moon ahead of the outbound powered flyby — a burn of Orion’s main engine that placed the spacecraft into lunar orbit. During this maneuver, Orion came within 81 miles of the lunar surface.
Credit: NASA On flight day 13 during Artemis I, Orion reached its maximum distance from Earth at 268,563 miles away from our home planet, traveling farther than any other spacecraft built for humans.
Credit: NASA This first high-resolution image, taken on the first day of the Artemis I mission, was captured by a camera on the tip of one of Orion’s solar arrays. The spacecraft was 57,000 miles from home and distancing itself from planet Earth as it approached the Moon and distant retrograde orbit.
Silhouettes
Credit: NASA In this virtual background, various scenes from Earth, Moon, and Mars are depicted within the silhouette outlines of three suited astronauts, artistically representing the interconnected nature of human space exploration from low Earth orbit to the Moon and, one day, human missions to Mars.
SLS (Space Launch System)
Credit: Joel Kowsky In this sunrise photo at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida, NASA’s SLS rocket with the Orion spacecraft aboard is seen atop the mobile launcher at Launch Pad 39B as preparations continued for the Artemis I launch.
Credit: NASA/Joel Kowsky In this close-up image, NASA’s SLS rocket with the Orion spacecraft aboard is seen atop the mobile launcher at Launch Pad 39B on Nov. 12, 2022, at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida.
Credit: NASA/Joel Kowsky NASA’s SLS rocket with the Orion spacecraft aboard is seen at sunrise atop the mobile launcher at Launch Pad 39B on Nov. 7, 2022, at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida.
Earth, Moon, and Mars
Credit: NASA From left, an artist’s concept of the Moon, Earth, and Mars sharing space. NASA’s long-term goal is to send humans to Mars, and we will use what we learn at the Moon to help us get there. This is the agency’s Moon to Mars exploration approach.
Credit: NASA In this artist’s concept, the upper portion of a blended sphere represents the Earth, Moon, and Mars.
Credit: NASA An artist’s concept showing, from left, the Earth, Moon, and Mars in sequence. Mars remains our horizon goal for human exploration because it is a rich destination for scientific discovery and a driver of technologies that will enable humans to travel and explore far from Earth.
About the Author
Catherine E. Williams
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Last Updated Dec 02, 2024 Related Terms
Humans in Space Artemis Artemis 1 Artemis 2 Artemis 3 Artemis 4 Artemis 5 Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate Explore More
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By NASA
Caption: Firefly Aerospace’s Blue Ghost Mission One lander, seen here, will carry 10 NASA science and technology instruments to the Moon’s near side when it launches from NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket, as part of NASA’s CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Services) initiative and Artemis campaign. Credit: Firefly Aerospace Media accreditation is open for the next delivery to the Moon through NASA’s CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Services) initiative and Artemis campaign for the benefit of humanity. A six-day launch window opens no earlier than mid-January 2025 for the first Firefly Aerospace launch to the lunar surface.
The Blue Ghost flight, carrying 10 NASA science and technology instruments, will launch on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from Launch Complex 39A at the agency’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Media prelaunch and launch activities will take place at NASA Kennedy.
Attendance for this launch is open to U.S. citizens and international media. International media must apply by Monday, Dec. 9, and U.S. media must apply by Thursday, Jan. 2. Media interested in participating in launch activities must apply for credentials at:
https://media.ksc.nasa.gov
Credentialed media will receive a confirmation email upon approval. NASA’s media accreditation policy is available online. For questions about accreditation or to request special logistical support such as space for satellite trucks, tents, or electrical connections, please send an email by Thursday, Jan. 2, to: ksc-media-accreditat@mail.nasa.gov. For other questions, please contact Kennedy’s newsroom at: 321-867-2468.
Para obtener información sobre cobertura en español en el Centro Espacial Kennedy o si desea solicitar entrevistas en español, comuníquese con Antonia Jaramillo o Messod Bendayan a: antonia.jaramillobotero@nasa.gov o messod.c.bendayan@nasa.gov.
The company named the mission Ghost Riders in the Sky. It will land near a volcanic feature called Mons Latreille within Mare Crisium, a more than 300-mile-wide basin located in the northeast quadrant of the lunar near side. The mission will carry NASA investigations and first-of-their-kind technology demonstrations to further our understanding of the Moon’s environment and help prepare for future human missions to the lunar surface, as part of the agency’s Moon to Mars exploration approach. This includes payloads testing lunar subsurface drilling, regolith sample collection, global navigation satellite system abilities, radiation tolerant computing, and lunar dust mitigation. The data captured also benefits humanity by providing insights into how space weather and other cosmic forces impact Earth.
Under the CLPS model, NASA is investing in commercial delivery services to the Moon to enable industry growth and support long-term lunar exploration. As a primary customer for CLPS deliveries, NASA aims to be one of many customers on future flights.
As part of its Artemis campaign, NASA is working with multiple U.S. companies to deliver science and technology to the lunar surface. These companies are eligible to bid on task orders to deliver NASA payloads to the Moon. The task order includes payload integration and operations and launching from Earth and landing on the surface of the Moon. Existing CLPS contracts are indefinite-delivery/indefinite-quantity contracts with a cumulative maximum contract value of $2.6 billion through 2028.
For more information about the agency’s Commercial Lunar Payload Services initiative, see:
https://www.nasa.gov/clps
-end-
Alise Fisher
Headquarters, Washington
202-358-2546
alise.m.fisher@nasa.gov
Wynn Scott / Natalia Riusech
Johnson Space Center, Houston
281-483-5111
wynn.b.scott@nasa.gov / nataila.s.riusech@nasa.gov
Antonia Jaramillo
Kennedy Space Center, Florida
321-867-2468
antonia.jaramillobotero@nasa.gov
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Last Updated Nov 25, 2024 LocationNASA Headquarters Related Terms
Missions Artemis Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) View the full article
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By NASA
2 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
ESI24 Zhai Quadchart
Lei Zhai
University of Central Florida
Lunar dust, with its chemical reactivity, electrostatic charge, and potential magnetism, poses a serious threat to astronauts and equipment on the Moon’s surface. To address this, the project proposes developing structured coatings with anisotropic surface features and electrostatic dissipative properties to passively mitigate lunar dust. By analyzing lunar dust-surface interactions at multiple scales, the team aims to optimize the coatings’ surface structures and physical properties, such as Young’s modulus, electrical conductivity, and polarity. The project will examine tribocharging, external electric fields, and the effects of particle shapes and sizes. Numerical sensitivity analyses will complement simulations to better understand lunar dust dynamics. Once fabricated, the coatings will be tested under simulated lunar conditions. The team will employ a state-of-the-art nanoscale force spectroscopy system, using atomic force microsope (AFM) microcantilevers functionalized with regolith to measure dust-surface interactions. Additional experiments will assess particle adhesion and removal, with scanning electron microscopy used to analyze remaining dust. This project aims to provide insights into surface structure effects on dust adhesion, guiding the creation of lightweight, durable coatings for effective dust mitigation. The findings will foster collaborations with NASA and the aerospace industry, while offering training opportunities for students entering the field.
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By NASA
1 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
ESI24 Zou Quadchart
Min Zou
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville
Lunar dust, with its highly abrasive and electrostatic properties, poses serious threats to the longevity and functionality of spacecraft, habitats, and equipment operating on the Moon. This project aims to develop advanced bioinspired surface textures that effectively repel lunar dust, targeting critical surfaces such as habitat exteriors, doors, and windows. By designing and fabricating innovative micro-/nano-hierarchical core-shell textures, we aim to significantly reduce dust adhesion, ultimately enhancing the performance and durability of lunar infrastructure. Using cutting-edge fabrication methods like two-photon lithography and atomic layer deposition, our team will create resilient, dust-repelling textures inspired by natural surfaces. We will also conduct in-situ testing with a scanning electron microscope to analyze individual particle adhesion and triboelectric effects, gaining critical insights into lunar dust behavior on engineered surfaces. These findings will guide the development of durable surfaces for long-lasting, low-maintenance lunar equipment, with broader applications for other dust-prone environments.
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