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ESA astronauts help map Europe’s light pollution from space
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By NASA
Humans are returning to the Moon—this time, to stay. Because our presence will be more permanent, NASA has selected a location that maximizes line-of-sight communication with Earth, solar visibility, and access to water ice: the Lunar South Pole (LSP). While the Sun is in the lunar sky more consistently at the poles, it never rises more than a few degrees above the horizon; in the target landing regions, the highest possible elevation is 7°. This presents a harsh lighting environment never experienced during the Apollo missions, or in fact, in any human spaceflight experience. The ambient lighting will severely affect the crews’ ability to see hazards and to perform simple work. This is because the human vision system, which despite having a high-dynamic range, cannot see well into bright light and cannot adapt quickly from bright to dark or vice versa. Functional vision is required to perform a variety of tasks, from simple tasks (e.g., walking, operating simple tools) through managing complex machines (e.g., lander elevator, rovers). Thus, the environment presents an engineering challenge to the Agency: one that must be widely understood before it can be effectively addressed.
In past NASA missions and programs, design of lighting and functional vision support systems for extravehicular activity (EVA) or rover operations have been managed at the lowest program level. This worked well for Apollo and low Earth orbit because the Sun angle was managed by mission planning and astronaut self-positioning; helmet design alone addressed all vision challenges. The Artemis campaign presents new challenges to functional vision, because astronauts will be unable to avoid having the sun in their eyes much of the time they are on the lunar surface. This, combined with the need for artificial lighting in the extensive shadowing at the LSP, means that new functional vision support systems must be developed across projects and programs. The design of helmets, windows, and lighting systems must work in a complementary fashion, within and across programs, to achieve a system of lighting and vision support that enables crews to see into darkness while their eyes are light-adapted, in bright light while still dark-adapted, and protects their eyes from injury.
Many of the findings of the assessment were focused on the lack of specific requirements to prevent functional vision impairment by the Sun’s brilliance (which is different from preventing eye injury), while enabling astronauts to see well enough to perform specific tasks. Specifically, tasks expected of astronauts at the LSP were not incorporated into system design requirements to enable system development that ensures functional vision in the expected lighting environment. Consequently, the spacesuit, for example, has flexibility requirements for allowing the astronauts to walk but not for ensuring they can see well enough to walk from brilliant Sun into a dark shadow and back without the risk of tripping or falling. Importantly, gaps were identified in allocation of requirements across programs to ensure that the role of the various programs is for each to understand functional vision. NESC recommendations were offered that made enabling functional vision in the harsh lighting environment a specific and new requirement for the system designers. The recommendations also included that lighting, window, and visor designs be integrated.
The assessment team recommended that a wide variety of simulation techniques, physical and virtual, need to be developed, each with different and well-stated capabilities with respect to functional vision. Some would address the blinding effects of sunlight at the LSP (not easily achieved through virtual approaches) to evaluate performance of helmet shields and artificial lighting in the context of the environment and adaptation times. Other simulations would add terrain features to identify the threats in simple (e.g., walking, collection of samples) and complex (e.g., maintenance and operation of equipment) tasks. Since different facilities have different strengths, they also have different weaknesses. These strengths and limitations must be characterized to enable verification of technical solutions and crew training.
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By NASA
ESA (European Space Agency) astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti pictured aboard the International Space Station on Dec. 20, 2014, during Expedition 42.Credit: NASA Crew members aboard the International Space Station celebrate the holiday season in a unique way while living and working at the orbiting laboratory. Each crew member, including the current Expedition 72, spends time enjoying the view of Earth from the space station, privately communicating with their friends and families, and sharing a joint meal with their expedition crewmates, while continuing experiments and station maintenance.
This view of the rising Earth greeted the Apollo 8 astronauts William Ander, Frank Borman, and James Lovell on Dec. 24, 1968, as they approached from behind the Moon after the fourth nearside lunar orbit.Credit: NASA As the first crew to spend Christmas in space and leave Earth orbit, Apollo 8 astronauts Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders, celebrated while circling the Moon in December 1968. The crew commemorated Christmas Eve by reading opening verses from the Bible’s Book of Genesis as they broadcast scenes of the lunar surface below. An estimated one billion people across 64 countries tuned in to the crew’s broadcast.
Skylab 4 astronauts Gerald Carr, Edward Gibson, and William Pogue trim their homemade Christmas tree in December 1973. Credit: NASA In 1973, Skylab 4 astronauts Gerald Carr, Edward Gibson, and William Pogue celebrated Thanksgiving, Christmas, and New Year’s in space, as the first crew to spend the harvest festival and ring in the new year while in orbit. The crew built a homemade tree from leftover food containers, used colored decals as decorations, and topped it with a cardboard cutout in the shape of a comet. Carr and Pogue conducted a seven-hour spacewalk to change out film canisters and observe the passing Comet Kohoutek on Dec. 15, 1973. Once back inside the space station, the crew enjoyed a holiday dinner complete with fruitcake, communicated with their families, and opened presents.
NASA astronaut Jeffrey Hoffman pictured with a dreidel during Hanukkah in December 1993.Credit: NASA After NASA launched the agency’s Hubble Space Telescope into Earth’s orbit in 1990, NASA sent a space shuttle crew on a mission, STS-61, to service the telescope. In 1993, NASA astronaut Jeffrey Hoffman celebrated Hanukkah after completing the third spacewalk of the servicing mission. Hoffman celebrated with a traveling menorah and dreidel.
STS103-340-036 (19-27 December 1999) — Wearing Santa hats, astronauts John M. Grunsfeld and Steven L. Smith blend with the season for a brief celebration on the mid deck of the Space Shuttle Discovery. The interruption was very brief as the two mission specialists shortly went about completing their suit-up process in order to participate in STS-103 space walk activity, performing needed work on the Hubble Space Telescope (HST).Credit: NASA As NASA continued to support another Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission, the STS-103 crew celebrated the first space shuttle Christmas aboard Discovery in 1999. NASA astronauts Curtis Brown, Scott Kelly, Steven Smith, John Grunsfeld, and Michael Foale, along with ESA (European Space Agency) astronauts Jean-François Clervoy and Claude Nicollier enjoyed duck foie gras on Mexican tortillas, cassoulet, and salted pork with lentils. Smith and Grunsfeld completed repairs on the telescope during a spacewalk on Dec. 24, 1999, and at least one American astronaut has celebrated Christmas in space every year since.
Expedition 1 crew members Yuri Gidzenko of Roscosmos, left, NASA astronaut William Shepherd, and Sergei Krikalev of Roscosmos reading a Christmas message in December 2000.
Credit: NASA In November 2000, the arrival of Expedition 1 crew members, NASA astronaut William Shepherd and Roscosmos cosmonauts Yuri Gidzenko and Sergei Krikalev, aboard the International Space Station, marked the beginning of a continuous presence in space. As the first crew to celebrate the holiday season at the laboratorial outpost, they began the tradition of reading a goodwill message to those back on Earth. Shepherd honored a naval tradition of writing a poem as the first entry of the new year in the ship’s log.
For more than 24 years, NASA has supported a continuous U.S. human presence aboard the International Space Station, through which astronauts have learned to live and work in space for extended periods of time. As NASA supports missions to and from the station, crew members have continued to celebrate the holidays in space.
Expedition 4 crew members, NASA astronauts Daniel Bursch and Carl Walz, along with Roscosmos cosmonaut Yuri Onufriyenko, pose for a Christmas photo in December 2001. Credit: NASA Expedition 8 crew members, NASA astronaut Michael Foale, left, and Roscosmos cosmonaut Aleksandr Kaleri, right, celebrate Christmas in December 2003. Credit: NASA Expedition 10 crew members, Roscosmos cosmonaut Salizhan Sharipov, left, and NASA astronaut Leroy Chiao, right, celebrate New Year’s Eve in December 2004.Credit: NASA Expedition 12 crew members, Roscosmos cosmonaut Tokarev, left, and NASA astronaut William McArthur, pose with Christmas stockings in December 2005. NASA Expedition 14 crew members, Roscosmos cosmonaut Mikhail Tyurin, left, and NASA astronauts Michael Lopez-Alegria and Suni Williams pose wearing Santa hats in December 2006.Credit: NASA Expedition 16 crew members, Roscosmos cosmonaut Yuri Malenchenko, left, and NASA astronauts Peggy Whitson and Daniel Tani, with Christmas stockings and presents in December 2007. Expedition 18 crew members enjoy Christmas dinner in December 2008. Expedition 22 crew members gather around the dinner table in December 2009.Credit: NASA Expedition 26 crew members celebrates New Year’s Eve in December 2010.Credit: NASA Expedition 30 crew members pictured in December 2011.Credit: NASA Expedition 34 crew members pictured in December 2012. Credit: NASA Expedition 42 crew members leave milk and cookies for Santa and hang stockings using the airlock as a makeshift chimney in December 2013.Credit: NASA Expedition 50 crew members celebrate New Year’s Eve in December. Credit: NASA Expedition 54 crew member NASA astronaut Mark Vande Hei pictured as an elf for Christmas in December 2017.Credit: NASA Expedition 58 crew members inspect stockings for presents in December 2018 Expedition 61 crew member NASA astronaut Jessica Meir pictured with Hanukkah-themed socks in the cupola in December 2019. Expedition 61 crew members NASA astronauts Andrew Morgan, Christina Koch, and Jessica Meir, along with ESA (European Space Agency) astronaut Luca Parmitano share a holiday message on Dec. 23, 2019, from the International Space Station.Credit: NASA NASA astronaut Kayla Barron pictured with presents she wrapped for her crewmates in December 2021.Credit: NASA Expedition 68 crew members wear holiday outfits in December 2022.Credit: NASA Expedition 70 flight engineer NASA astronaut Jasmin Moghbeli’s husband and daughters made a felt menorah for her to celebrate Hanukkah during her mission. Since astronauts can’t light real candles aboard the space station, Moghbeli pinned felt “lights” for each night of the eight-day holiday. A dreidel spun in weightlessness will continue spinning until it comes in contact with another object but can’t land on any of its four faces. Expedition 70 crew members recorded a holiday message for those back on Earth.
Expedition 70 NASA astronaut Jasmin Moghbeli’s felt menorah and dreidel that she used to celebrate Hanukkah in December 2023. Credit: NASA NASA astronauts Don Pettit and Suni Williams, Expedition 72 flight engineer and commander respectively, pose for a fun holiday season portrait while speaking on a ham radio inside the International Space Station’s Columbus laboratory module. Credit: NASA To view this video please enable JavaScript, and consider upgrading to a web browser that supports HTML5 video
Expedition 72 video holiday message from the International Space Station. Credit: NASA The International Space Station is a convergence of science, technology, and human innovation that enables research not possible on Earth. The orbiting laboratory is a springboard for developing a low Earth economy and NASA’s next great leaps in exploration, including missions to the Moon under the Artemis campaign and, ultimately, human exploration of Mars.
Go here for more holiday memories onboard the space station. To learn more about the International Space Station, its research, and its crew, at:
https://www.nasa.gov/station
News Media Contacts:
Claire O’Shea
Headquarters, Washington
202-358-1100
claire.a.o’shea@nasa.gov
Sandra Jones
Johnson Space Center, Houston
281-483-5111
sandra.p.jones@nasa.gov
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By European Space Agency
Don’t miss the final ESA Impact of the year!
Your interactive gateway to the most captivating stories and stunning visuals from ESA.
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By European Space Agency
Global warming is driving the rapid melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet, contributing to global sea level rise and disrupting weather patterns worldwide. Because of this, precise measurements of its changing shape are of critical importance for adapting to climate change.
Now, scientists have delivered the first measurements of the Greenland Ice Sheet’s changing shape using data from ESA's CryoSat and NASA's ICESat-2 ice missions.
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