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By NASA
5 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
Typically, asteroids — like the one depicted in this artist’s concept — originate from the main asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, but a small population of near-Earth objects may also come from the Moon’s surface after being ejected into space by an impact.NASA/JPL-Caltech The near-Earth object was likely ejected into space after an impact thousands of years ago. Now it could contribute new insights to asteroid and lunar science.
The small near-Earth object 2024 PT5 captured the world’s attention last year after a NASA-funded telescope discovered it lingering close to, but never orbiting, our planet for several months. The asteroid, which is about 33 feet (10 meters) wide, does not pose a hazard to Earth, but its orbit around the Sun closely matches that of our planet, hinting that it may have originated nearby.
As described in a study published Jan. 14 in the Astrophysical Journal Letters, researchers have collected further evidence of 2024 PT5 being of local origin: It appears to be composed of rock broken off from the Moon’s surface and ejected into space after a large impact.
“We had a general idea that this asteroid may have come from the Moon, but the smoking gun was when we found out that it was rich in silicate minerals — not the kind that are seen on asteroids but those that have been found in lunar rock samples,” said Teddy Kareta, an astronomer at Lowell Observatory in Arizona, who led the research. “It looks like it hasn’t been in space for very long, maybe just a few thousand years or so, as there’s a lack of space weathering that would have caused its spectrum to redden.”
The asteroid was first detected on Aug. 7, 2024, by the NASA-funded Sutherland, South Africa, telescope of the University of Hawai’i’s Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS). Kareta’s team then used observations from the Lowell Discovery Telescope and the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility (IRTF) at the Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawai’i to show that the spectrum of reflected sunlight from the small object’s surface didn’t match that of any known asteroid type; instead, the reflected light more closely matched rock from the Moon.
Not (Old) Rocket Science
A second clue came from observing how the object moves. Along with asteroids, Space Age debris, such as old rockets from historic launches, can also be found in Earth-like orbits.
The difference in their orbits has to do with how each type responds to solar radiation pressure, which comes from the momentum of photons — quantum particles of light from the Sun — exerting a tiny force when they hit a solid object in space. This momentum exchange from many photons over time can push an object around ever so slightly, speeding it up or slowing it down. While a human-made object, like a hollow rocket booster, will move like an empty tin can in the wind, a natural object, such as an asteroid, will be much less affected.
Researchers studying asteroid 2024 PT5 have plotted its looping motion on two graphs. To a trained eye, they show that the object never gets captured by Earth’s gravity but, instead, lingers nearby before continuing its orbit around the Sun. NASA/JPL-Caltech To rule out 2024 PT5 being space junk, scientists at NASA’s Center for Near Earth Object Studies (CNEOS), which is managed by the agency’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California, analyzed its motion. Their precise calculations of the object’s motion under the force of gravity ultimately enabled them to search for additional motion caused by solar radiation pressure. In this case, the effects were found to be too small for the object to be artificial, proving 2024 PT5 is most likely of natural origin.
“Space debris and space rocks move slightly differently in space,” said Oscar Fuentes-Muñoz, a study coauthor and NASA postdoctoral fellow at JPL working with the CNEOS team. “Human-made debris is usually relatively light and gets pushed around by the pressure of sunlight. That 2024 PT5 doesn’t move this way indicates it is much denser than space debris.”
Asteroid Lunar Studies
The discovery of 2024 PT5 doubles the number of known asteroids thought to originate from the Moon. Asteroid 469219 Kamo’oalewa was found in 2016 with an Earth-like orbit around the Sun, indicating that it may also have been ejected from the lunar surface after a large impact. As telescopes become more sensitive to smaller asteroids, more potential Moon boulders will be discovered, creating an exciting opportunity not only for scientists studying a rare population of asteroids, but also for scientists studying the Moon.
If a lunar asteroid can be directly linked to a specific impact crater on the Moon, studying it could lend insights into cratering processes on the pockmarked lunar surface. Also, material from deep below the lunar surface — in the form of asteroids passing close to Earth — may be accessible to future scientists to study.
“This is a story about the Moon as told by asteroid scientists,” said Kareta. “It’s a rare situation where we’ve gone out to study an asteroid but then strayed into new territory in terms of the questions we can ask of 2024 PT5.”
The ATLAS, IRTF, and CNEOS projects are funded by NASA’s planetary defense program, which is managed by the Planetary Defense Coordination Office at NASA Headquarters in Washington.
For more information about asteroids and comets, visit:
https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/topics/asteroids/
NASA Asteroid Experts Create Hypothetical Impact Scenario for Exercise NASA Researchers Discover More Dark Comets Lesson Plan: How to Explore an Asteroid News Media Contacts
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Last Updated Jan 22, 2025 Related Terms
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By NASA
6 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
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A thick torus of gas and dust surrounding a supermassive black hole is shown in this artist’s concept. The torus can obscure light that’s generated by material falling into the black hole. Observations by NASA telescopes have helped scientists identify more of these hidden black holes.NASA/JPL-Caltech An effort to find some of the biggest, most active black holes in the universe provides a better estimate for the ratio of hidden to unhidden behemoths.
Multiple NASA telescopes recently helped scientists search the sky for supermassive black holes — those up to billions of times heavier than the Sun. The new survey is unique because it was as likely to find massive black holes that are hidden behind thick clouds of gas and dust as those that are not.
Astronomers think that every large galaxy in the universe has a supermassive black hole at its center. But testing this hypothesis is difficult because researchers can’t hope to count the billions or even trillions of supermassive black holes thought to exist in the universe. Instead they have to extrapolate from smaller samples to learn about the larger population. So accurately measuring the ratio of hidden supermassive black holes in a given sample helps scientists better estimate the total number of supermassive black holes in the universe.
The new study published in the Astrophysical Journal found that about 35% of supermassive black holes are heavily obscured, meaning the surrounding clouds of gas and dust are so thick they block even low-energy X-ray light. Comparable searches have previously found less than 15% of supermassive black holes are so obscured. Scientists think the true split should be closer to 50/50 based on models of how galaxies grow. If observations continue to indicate significantly less than half of supermassive black holes are hidden, scientists will need to adjust some key ideas they have about these objects and the role they play in shaping galaxies.
Hidden Treasure
Although black holes are inherently dark — not even light can escape their gravity — they can also be some of the brightest objects in the universe: When gas gets pulled into orbit around a supermassive black hole, like water circling a drain, the extreme gravity creates such intense friction and heat that the gas reaches hundreds of thousands of degrees and radiates so brightly it can outshine all the stars in the surrounding galaxy.
The clouds of gas and dust that surround and replenish the bright central disk may roughly take the shape of a torus, or doughnut. If the doughnut hole is facing toward Earth, the bright central disk within it is visible; if the doughnut is seen edge-on, the disk is obscured.
A supermassive black hole surrounded by a torus of gas and dust is depicted in four different wavelengths of light in this artist’s concept. Visible light (top right) and low-energy X-rays (bottom left) are blocked by the torus; infrared (top left) is scattered and reemitted; and some high energy X-rays (bottom right) can penetrate the torus. NASA/JPL-Caltech Most telescopes can rather easily identify face-on supermassive black holes, though not edge-on ones. But there’s an exception to this that the authors of the new paper took advantage of: The torus absorbs light from the central source and reemits lower-energy light in the infrared range (wavelengths slightly longer than what human eyes can detect). Essentially, the doughnuts glow in infrared.
These wavelengths of light were detected by NASA’s Infrared Astronomical Satellite, or IRAS, which operated for 10 months in 1983 and was managed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California. A survey telescope that imaged the entire sky, IRAS was able to see the infrared emissions from the clouds surrounding supermassive black holes. Most importantly, it could spot edge-on and face-on black holes equally well.
IRAS caught hundreds of initial targets. Some of them turned out to be not heavily obscured black holes but galaxies with high rates of star formation that emit a similar infrared glow. So the authors of the new study used ground-based, visible-light telescopes to identify those galaxies and separate them from the hidden black holes.
To confirm edge-on, heavily obscured black holes, the researchers relied on NASA’s NuSTAR (Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array), an X-ray observatory also managed by JPL. X-rays are radiated by some of the hottest material around the black hole. Lower-energy X-rays are absorbed by the surrounding clouds of gas and dust, while the higher-energy X-rays observed by NuSTAR can penetrate and scatter off the clouds. Detecting these X-rays can take hours of observation, so scientists working with NuSTAR first need a telescope like IRAS to tell them where to look.
NASA’s NuSTAR X-ray telescope, depicted in this artist’s concept, has helped astronomers get a better sense of how many supermassive black holes are hidden from view by thick clouds of gas and dust that surround them.NASA/JPL-Caltech “It amazes me how useful IRAS and NuSTAR were for this project, especially despite IRAS being operational over 40 years ago,” said study lead Peter Boorman, an astrophysicist at Caltech in Pasadena, California. “I think it shows the legacy value of telescope archives and the benefit of using multiple instruments and wavelengths of light together.”
Numerical Advantage
Determining the number of hidden black holes compared to nonhidden ones can help scientists understand how these black holes get so big. If they grow by consuming material, then a significant number of black holes should be surrounded by thick clouds and potentially obscured. Boorman and his coauthors say their study supports this hypothesis.
In addition, black holes influence the galaxies they live in, mostly by impacting how galaxies grow. This happens because black holes surrounded by massive clouds of gas and dust can consume vast — but not infinite — amounts of material. If too much falls toward a black hole at once, the black hole starts coughing up the excess and firing it back out into the galaxy. That can disperse gas clouds within the galaxy where stars are forming, slowing the rate of star formation there.
“If we didn’t have black holes, galaxies would be much larger,” said Poshak Gandhi, a professor of astrophysics at the University of Southampton in the United Kingdom and a coauthor on the new study. “So if we didn’t have a supermassive black hole in our Milky Way galaxy, there might be many more stars in the sky. That’s just one example of how black holes can influence a galaxy’s evolution.”
More About NuSTAR
A Small Explorer mission led by Caltech and managed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California for the agency’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington, NuSTAR was developed in partnership with the Danish Technical University and the Italian Space Agency (ASI). The spacecraft was built by Orbital Sciences Corp. in Dulles, Virginia. NuSTAR’s mission operations center is at the University of California, Berkeley, and the official data archive is at NASA’s High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. ASI provides the mission’s ground station and a mirror data archive. Caltech manages JPL for NASA.
For more information on NuSTAR, visit:
www.nustar.caltech.edu
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Calla Cofield
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
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Last Updated Jan 13, 2025 Related Terms
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By NASA
4 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
Artist concept highlighting the novel approach proposed by the 2025 NIAC awarded selection of Inflatable Starshade for Earthlike Exoplanets concept.NASA/John Mather John Mather
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
We will design the first family of ISEE’s (Inflatable Starshade for Earthlike Exoplanets) with sizes from 35 to 100 m diameter. A starshade would enable any telescope to observe exoplanets, a top priority for astronomy worldwide. Compared with other starshade concepts, we aim for a lower mass, cost and complexity, while still providing high performance and science yield (>100 targets). Our starshades would be compatible with the 6 m diameter Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO) now being planned, as well as the world’s largest telescope, the 39 m diameter European Extremely Large Telescope now being built in Chile, working as part of the HOEE, (Hybrid Observatory for Earthlike Exoplanets), and other future telescopes. We need to observe oxygen at visible wavelengths and ozone at UV.
An ISEE, positioned between a target star and the telescope, would block the starlight without blocking the exoplanets. Starshades have perfect optical efficiency, they work with any telescope, and they can block the starlight much better than the requirement, for a star >1010 times brighter than the target.
The competing technology uses a nearly perfect and perfectly stable space telescope like HWO, with an internal coronagraph, to keep the starlight away from the image of the planet. Coronagraphs have the key advantages that they are compact, testable, and have instant availability. However, tested coronagraphs have not yet met the contrast requirement. Moreover, there is no possibility of an ultraviolet coronagraph. If the extreme picometer stability and optical perfection requirements on HWO and its coronagraph could be relaxed by using it with a starshade, then HWO itself could be built at much lower cost and risk. If UV observations of exoplanets are essential, then a 35 m starshade with HWO is the only possible solution.
The HWO will be NASA’s next great observatory, and it will include a high performance coronagraph to observe exoplanets. This choice changed the landscape for the competing starshade technology. A starshade mission could still become necessary if: A. The HWO and its coronagraph cannot be built and tested as required; B. The HWO must observe exoplanets at UV wavelengths, or a 6 m HWO is not large enough to observe the desired targets; C. HWO does not achieve adequate performance after launch, and planned servicing and instrument replacement cannot be implemented; D. HWO observations show us that interesting exoplanets are rare, distant, or are hidden by thick dust clouds around the host star, or cannot be fully characterized by an upgraded HWO; or E. HWO observations show that the next step requires UV data, or a much larger telescope, beyond the capability of conceivable HWO coronagraph upgrades.
An inflatable starshade would overcome the main obstacle to starshades: their mechanical design. Starshades have never been flown, they have strict shape and edge requirements, and they must be propelled and precisely positioned. Prior designs based on discrete elements can be scaled up to the size required for HWO (35-60 m) and HOEE (100 m), but they are massive and hard to test leading to high cost and risk. Our mass budget aims for 250 kg for the 35 m HWO case, 650 kg for the 60 m case and 1700 kg for the 100 m HOEE case.We will extend our ideas and produce detailed designs and finite element models, suitable for strength, stiffness, stability, and thermal analysis. We will develop small-scale laboratory test equipment and verify solutions to issues like bonding large sheets of high-strength material into inflatable systems. Deliverable items would include mass/power budgets, strength and stiffness, and lab tests of critical items. We will update mission concepts for HWO and HOEE based on the starshade parameters.
Depending on progress with the HWO mission, starshades could be required to complete our knowledge of exoplanets. An inflatable starshade could make them possible.
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Last Updated Jan 10, 2025 EditorLoura Hall Related Terms
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By NASA
4 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
LMS instrument aboard the Blue Ghost Lander heading to Mare Crisium in mid-January
As part of its Artemis campaign, NASA is developing a series of increasingly complex lunar deliveries and missions to ultimately build a sustained human presence at the Moon for decades to come. Through the agency’s CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Services) initiative, commercial provider Firefly’s Blue Ghost lander will head to the Moon’s Mare Crisium for a 14-day lunar lander mission, carrying NASA science and technology that will help understand the lunar subsurface in a previously unexplored location.
From within the Mare Crisium impact basin, the SwRI-led Lunar Magnetotelluric Sounder (LMS) may provide the first geophysical measurements representative of the bulk of the Moon. Most of the Apollo missions landed in the region of linked maria to the west (left image), whose crust was later shown to be compositionally distinct (right image) as exemplified by the concentration of the element thorium. Mare Crisium provides a smooth landing site on the near side of the Moon outside of this anomalous region. NASA Developed by the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), NASA’s Lunar Magnetotelluric Sounder (LMS) will probe the interior of the Moon to depths of up to 700 miles, two-thirds of the way to the lunar center. The measurements will shed light on the differentiation and thermal history of our Moon, a cornerstone to understanding the evolution of solid worlds.
Magnetotellurics uses natural variations in surface electric and magnetic fields to calculate how easily electricity flows in subsurface materials, which can reveal their composition and structure.
“For more than 50 years, scientists have used magnetotellurics on Earth for a wide variety of purposes, including to find oil, water, and geothermal and mineral resources, as well as to understand geologic processes such as the growth of continents,” said SwRI’s Dr. Robert Grimm, principal investigator of LMS. “The LMS instrument will be the first extraterrestrial application of magnetotellurics.”
Mare Crisium is an ancient, 350-mile-diameter impact basin that subsequently filled with lava, creating a dark spot visible on the Moon from Earth. Early astronomers who dubbed dark spots on the moon “maria,” Latin for seas, mistook them for actual seas.
Mare Crisium stands apart from the large, connected areas of dark lava to the west where most of the Apollo missions landed. These vast, linked lava plains are now thought to be compositionally and structurally different from the rest of the Moon. From this separate vantage point, LMS may provide the first geophysical measurements representative of most of the Moon.
The Lunar Magnetotelluric Sounder (LMS) will probe the interior of the Moon to depths of up to 700 miles or two-thirds of the lunar radius. The measurements will shed light on the differentiation and thermal history of our Moon, a cornerstone to understanding the evolution of solid worlds.
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center The LMS instrument ejects cables with electrodes at 90-degree angles to each other and distances up to 60 feet. The instrument measures voltages across opposite pairs of electrodes, much like the probes of a conventional voltmeter. The magnetometer is deployed via an extendable mast to reduce interference from the lander. The magnetotelluric method reveals a vertical profile of the electrical conductivity, providing insight into the temperature and composition of the penetrated materials in the lunar interior.
“The five individual subsystems of LMS, together with connecting cables, weigh about 14 pounds and consume about 11 Watts of power,” Grimm said. “While stowed, each electrode is surrounded by a ‘yarn ball’ of cable, so the assembly is roughly spherical and the size of a softball.”
The LMS payload was funded and will be delivered to the lunar surface through NASA’s CLPS initiative. Southwest Research Institute based in San Antonio built the central electronics and leads the science investigation. NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, provided the LMS magnetometer to measure the magnetic fields, and Heliospace Corp. provided the electrodes used to measure the electrical fields.
Under the CLPS model, NASA is investing in commercial delivery services to the Moon to enable industry growth and support long-term lunar exploration. As a primary customer for CLPS deliveries, NASA aims to be one of many customers on future flights. NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, manages the development of seven of the 10 CLPS payloads carried on Firefly’s Blue Ghost lunar lander.
Media Contact: Rani Gran
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland
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Last Updated Jan 10, 2025 EditorRob GarnerContactRani GranLocationGoddard Space Flight Center Related Terms
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By NASA
Supporting the International Space Station is an around-the-clock responsibility for NASA and its international partners. This means there is always a team of flight operations and payload personnel working with the orbiting laboratory’s crew – including overnight, on weekends, and during the holidays.
At Johnson Space Center’s Mission Control Center (MCC) in Houston, flight directors organize fun activities to help these teams build camaraderie and celebrate holidays while they work, no matter the hour.
“Working in mission control is a very rewarding job, but it also demands a lot from flight controllers and leads to time away from family,” said Fiona Antkowiak, a flight director in the MCC. “We really want to make the holiday shifts in MCC extra special.”
Fiona Antkowiak (front right) and her Orbit 3 shift team members show off their holiday cookie creations in the Mission Control Center (MCC) at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston. Image courtesy of Fiona Antkowiak Antkowiak recalled working Christmas 2018 as a space station flight controller. That year, teams participated in a friendly cookie-decorating competition, with the three different MCC shifts going head-to-head. When flight directors started brainstorming festive ideas for the 2024 holiday season, Antkowiak suggested reviving the contest and asked the Expedition 72 crew if they would be willing to judge the entries. “They agreed, and also told us they would decorate some cookies for us to judge, too!”
Astronauts aboard the International Space Station often decorate cookies as part of their holiday celebrations and have become adept at manipulating icing in zero gravity. NASA astronaut Nick Hague shared on social media, “It opened up a whole new dimension, quite literally, with layer upon layer of icing.”
The Expedition 72 crew decorates cookies aboard the International Space Station (left), and their finished products. NASA Teams in the MCC in Houston and NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center Payload Operations Integration Center in Huntsville, Alabama, were joined by international partners ESA (European Space Agency) and JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) from their respective control centers. The decorating began late on Christmas Eve and concluded on Christmas Day, ensuring space station crew members could participate in the fun on their days off.
The 36 entries drew inspiration from traditional holiday imagery, human spaceflight, sports teams, and comic books. Each crew member selected their personal favorite cookie, in addition to choosing an overall winner. Payload Operations Director Jaclyn Poteraj created the winning cookie, depicting an astronaut riding on a reindeer made of cargo transfer bags, which are used to transport cargo to and store it aboard the International Space Station.
The winning cookie design. Image courtesy of Jaclyn Poteraj “We had a lot of fun figuring out how to mix the colors we wanted for icing, deciding on designs, and ultimately decorating our cookies,” said Antkowiak. “Our team is lucky to have the responsibility of keeping the space station and her crew safe, and I’m glad we can find ways to still celebrate the holidays while at work.”
Enjoy more photos from the cookie-decorating competition below.
Fiona Antkowiak prepares icing for the cookies at her desk in the MCC The MCC Orbit 3 team’s decorated cookies. The MCC Orbit 1 team shows off their completed cookies. The MCC Orbit 2 team poses for a picture after decorating their cookies. Cookies decorated by the MCC Orbit 2 team. View the full article
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