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By NASA
5 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
NASA’s SPHEREx mission will survey the Milky Way galaxy looking for water ice and other key ingredients for life. In the search for these frozen compounds, the mission will focus on molecular clouds — collections of gas and dust in space — like this one imaged by the agency’s James Webb Space Telescope. NASA, ESA, CSA Where is all the water that may form oceans on distant planets and moons? The SPHEREx astrophysics mission will search the galaxy and take stock.
Every living organism on Earth needs water to survive, so scientists searching for life outside our solar system, are often guided by the phrase “follow the water.” Scheduled to launch no earlier than Thursday, Feb. 27, NASA’s SPHEREx (Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe, Epoch of Reionization, and Ices Explorer) mission will help in that quest.
After its ride aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 from Vandenberg Space Force base in California, the observatory will search for water, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other key ingredients for life frozen on the surface of interstellar dust grains in the clouds of gas and dust where planets and stars eventually form.
While there are no oceans or lakes floating freely in space, scientists think these reservoirs of ice, bound to small dust grains, are where most of the water in our universe forms and resides. Additionally, the water in Earth’s oceans as well as those of other planets and moons in our galaxy likely originated in such locations.
The Perseus Molecular Cloud, located about 1,000 light-years from Earth, was imaged by NASA’s retired Spitzer Space Telescope. NASA’s SPHEREx mission will search the galaxy for water ice and other frozen compounds in clouds of gas and dust in space like this one. NASA/JPL-Caltech The mission will focus on massive regions of gas and dust called molecular clouds. Within those, SPHEREx will also look at some newly formed stars and the disks of material around them from which new planets are born.
Although space telescopes such as NASA’s James Webb and retired Spitzer have detected water, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other compounds in hundreds of targets, the SPHEREx observatory is the first to be uniquely equipped to conduct a large-scale survey of the galaxy in search of water ice and other frozen compounds.
Get the SPHEREx Press Kit Rather than taking 2D images of a target like a star, SPHEREx will gather 3D data along its line of sight. That enables scientists to see the amount of ice present in a molecular cloud and observe how the composition of the ices throughout the cloud changes in different environments.
By making more than 9 million of these line-of-sight observations and creating the largest-ever survey of these materials, the mission will help scientists better understand how these compounds form on dust grains and how different environments can influence their abundance.
Tip of the Iceberg
It makes sense that the composition of planets and stars would reflect the molecular clouds they formed in. However, researchers are still working to confirm the specifics of the planet formation process, and the universe doesn’t always match scientists’ expectations.
For example, a NASA mission launched in 1998, the Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite (SWAS), surveyed the galaxy for water in gas form — including in molecular clouds — but found far less than expected.
BAE Systems employees work on NASA’s SPHEREx observatory in the Astrotech Space Operations facility at Vandenberg Space Force Base in California on Jan. 16. Targeting a Feb. 27 launch, the mission will map the entire sky in infrared light. NASA/JPL-Caltech “This puzzled us for a while,” said Gary Melnick, a senior astronomer at the Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian and a member of the SPHEREx science team. “We eventually realized that SWAS had detected gaseous water in thin layers near the surface of molecular clouds, suggesting that there might be a lot more water inside the clouds, locked up as ice.”
The mission team’s hypothesis also made sense because SWAS detected less oxygen gas (two oxygen atoms bound together) than expected. They concluded that the oxygen atoms were sticking to interstellar dust grains, and were then joined by hydrogen atoms, forming water. Later research confirmed this. What’s more, the clouds shield molecules from cosmic radiation that would otherwise break those compounds apart. As a result, water ice and other materials stored deep in a cloud’s interior are protected.
As starlight passes through a molecular cloud, molecules like water and carbon dioxide block certain wavelengths of light, creating a distinct signature that SPHEREx and other missions like Webb can identify using a technique called absorption spectroscopy.
In addition to providing a more detailed accounting of the abundance of these frozen compounds, SPHEREx will help researchers answer questions including how deep into molecular clouds ice begins to form, how the abundance of water and other ices changes with the density of a molecular cloud, and how that abundance changes once a star forms.
Powerful Partnerships
As a survey telescope, SPHEREx is designed to study large portions of the sky relatively quickly, and its results can be used in conjunction with data from targeted telescopes like Webb, which observe a significantly smaller area but can see their targets in greater detail.
“If SPHEREx discovers a particularly intriguing location, Webb can study that target with higher spectral resolving power and in wavelengths that SPHEREx cannot detect,” said Melnick. “These two telescopes could form a highly effective partnership.”
More About SPHEREx
SPHEREx is managed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California for the Astrophysics Division within the Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington. BAE Systems (formerly Ball Aerospace) built the telescope and the spacecraft bus. The science analysis of the SPHEREx data will be conducted by a team of scientists located at 10 institutions in the U.S., two in South Korea, and one in Taiwan. Data will be processed and archived at IPAC at Caltech, which manages JPL for NASA. The mission principal investigator is based at Caltech with a joint JPL appointment. The SPHEREx dataset will be publicly available at the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive.
For more information about the SPHEREx mission visit:
https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/spherex/
6 Things to Know About SPHEREx Why NASA’s SPHEREx Mission Will Make ‘Most Colorful’ Cosmic Map Ever News Media Contact
Calla Cofield
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
626-808-2469
calla.e.cofield@jpl.nasa.gov
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Last Updated Feb 13, 2025 Related Terms
SPHEREx (Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe and Ices Explorer) Astrophysics Exoplanets Galaxies Jet Propulsion Laboratory Stars The Universe Explore More
5 min read Webb Maps Full Picture of How Phoenix Galaxy Cluster Forms Stars
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By NASA
For more than a decade, Tristan McKnight has been a driving force behind some of NASA’s most iconic events, orchestrating the behind-the-scenes magic that brings each historic moment to life while sharing the agency’s advancements with the public.
As a multimedia producer on the audiovisual team at Johnson Space Center in Houston, McKnight produces and directs live broadcasts and manages event planning, coordination, and execution. From overseeing resources, mitigating risks, and communicating with stakeholders, he ensures every detail aligns seamlessly.
Official portrait of Tristan McKnight.NASA/Josh Valcarcel McKnight has played an integral role in the audiovisual team’s coverage of major events including the Artemis II crew announcement, where NASA revealed the astronauts who will venture around the Moon and back, to Johnson’s 2023 Open House, which celebrated the agency’s 65th anniversary and the 25th anniversary of the International Space Station’s operations. These achievements highlight key milestones in human space exploration.
A standout achievement was contributing to the Dorothy Vaughan Center in Honor of the Women of Apollo naming ceremony, held on the eve of the 55th anniversary of the Apollo 11 Moon landing. The event honored the unsung heroes who made humanity’s first steps on the Moon possible.
The team’s dedication and passion are a testament to their commitment to sharing NASA’s legacy with the world.
“Not only have these events been impactful to Johnson, but they have also resonated across the entire agency,” McKnight said. “That is what I’m most proud of!”
Tristan McKnight at the 45th Annual Original Martin Luther King Jr. Day Parade in downtown Houston.NASA/James Blair One of McKnight’s most memorable events was the 2023 “Back in the Saddle,” an annual tradition designed to refocus Johnson’s workforce at the start of a new year and renew the center’s commitment to safety and mission excellence. McKnight recalled how the speaker transformed Johnson’s Teague Auditorium into a venue filled with drum kits, inspiring messages, and lighting displays. Each audience member, drumsticks in hand, participated in a lesson on teamwork and synchronization to create a metaphor for working in harmony toward a shared goal.
Like many high-achieving professionals. McKnight has faced moments of self-doubt. Then he realized that he is exactly where he is supposed to be. “As I settled into my role, I recognized that my contributions matter and simply being true to who I am adds value to the Johnson community,” he said.
Tristan McKnight (right) receives a Group Special Act Award from Johnson Space Center Director Vanessa Wyche for his contributions to the Dorothy Vaughn in Honor of the Women of Apollo naming ceremony.NASA Each day brings its own set of challenges, ranging from minor issues like communication gaps and scheduling conflicts to major obstacles like technology failures. One of McKnight’s most valuable lessons is recognizing that there is no one-size-fits-all solution, and each situation requires a thoughtful analysis.
McKnight understands the importance of the “check-and double-check,” a philosophy he considers crucial when working with technology. “Taking the extra time to do your due diligence, or even having someone else take a look, can make all the difference,” he said.
“The challenges I’ve faced helped me grow as a problem solver and taught me valuable lessons on resilience and adaptability in the workplace,” he said. McKnight approaches obstacles with a level head, focusing on effective solutions rather than dwelling on the problem.
Tristan McKnight (left) with his daughter Lydia McKnight and Johnson’s External Relations Director Arturo Sanchez at the 2024 Bring Your Youth To Work Day. NASA/Helen Arase Vargas As humanity looks to the stars, McKnight is energized about the future of exploration, particularly advancements in spacesuit and rocket technology that will enable us to travel farther, faster, and safer than ever before. His work, though grounded on Earth, helps create the inspiration that fuels these bold endeavors.
“My hope for the next generation is that they dive deeper into their curiosity—exploring not only the world around them but also the Moon, planets, and beyond,” he said. “I also hope they carry forward the spirit of resilience and a commitment to making the world a better place for all.”
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By NASA
5 Min Read Webb Maps Full Picture of How Phoenix Galaxy Cluster Forms Stars
Spectroscopic data collected from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope is overlayed on an image of the Phoenix cluster that combines data from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, Chandra X-ray Observatory and the Very Large Array (VLA) radio telescope. Credits:
NASA, CXC, NRAO, ESA, M. McDonald (MIT), M. Reefe (MIT), J. Olmsted (STScI) Discovery proves decades-old theory of galaxy feeding cycle.
Researchers using NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope have finally solved the mystery of how a massive galaxy cluster is forming stars at such a high rate. The confirmation from Webb builds on more than a decade of studies using NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory and Hubble Space Telescope, as well as several ground-based observatories.
The Phoenix cluster, a grouping of galaxies bound together by gravity 5.8 billion light-years from Earth, has been a target of interest for astronomers due to a few unique properties. In particular, ones that are surprising: a suspected extreme cooling of gas and a furious star formation rate despite a roughly 10 billion solar mass supermassive black hole at its core. In other observed galaxy clusters, the central supermassive black hole powers energetic particles and radiation that prevents gas from cooling enough to form stars. Researchers have been studying gas flows within this cluster to try to understand how it is driving such extreme star formation.
Image A: Phoenix Cluster (Hubble, Chandra, VLA Annotated)
Spectroscopic data collected from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope is overlayed on an image of the Phoenix cluster that combines data from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, Chandra X-ray Observatory and the Very Large Array (VLA) radio telescope. Webb’s powerful sensitivity in the mid-infrared detected the cooling gas that leads to a furious rate of star formation in this massive galaxy cluster. Credit: NASA, CXC, NRAO, ESA, M. McDonald (MIT), M. Reefe (MIT), J. Olmsted (STScI) “We can compare our previous studies of the Phoenix cluster, which found differing cooling rates at different temperatures, to a ski slope,” said Michael McDonald of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, principal investigator of the program. “The Phoenix cluster has the largest reservoir of hot, cooling gas of any galaxy cluster — analogous to having the busiest chair lift, bringing the most skiers to the top of the mountain. However, not all of those skiers were making it down the mountain, meaning not all the gas was cooling to low temperatures. If you had a ski slope where there were significantly more people getting off the ski lift at the top than were arriving at the bottom, that would be a problem!”
To date, in the Phoenix cluster, the numbers weren’t adding up, and researchers were missing a piece of the process. Webb has now found those proverbial skiers at the middle of the mountain, in that it has tracked and mapped the missing cooling gas that will ultimately feed star formation. Most importantly, this intermediary warm gas was found within cavities tracing the very hot gas, a searing 18 million degrees Fahrenheit, and the already cooled gas around 18,000 degrees Fahrenheit.
The team studied the cluster’s core in more detail than ever before with the Medium-Resolution Spectrometer on Webb’s Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI). This tool allows researchers to take two-dimenstional spectroscopic data from a region of the sky, during one set of observations.
“Previous studies only measured gas at the extreme cold and hot ends of the temperature distribution throughout the center of the cluster,” added McDonald. “We were limited — it was not possible to detect the ‘warm’ gas that we were looking for. With Webb, we could do this for the first time.”
Image B: Phoenix Cluster (Hubble, Chandra, VLA)
This image of the Phoenix cluster combines data from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the Very Large Array radio telescope. X-rays from Chandra depict extremely hot gas in purple. Optical light data from Hubble show galaxies in yellow, and filaments of cooler gas where stars are forming in light blue. Outburst generated jets, represented in red, are seen in radio waves by the VLA radio telescope. NASA, CXC, NRAO, ESA, M. McDonald (MIT). A Quirk of Nature
Webb’s capability to detect this specific temperature of cooling gas, around 540,000 degrees Fahrenheit, is in part due to its instrumental capabilities. However, the researchers are getting a little help from nature, as well.
This oddity involves two very different ionized atoms, neon and oxygen, created in similar environments. At these temperatures, the emission from oxygen is 100 times brighter but is only visible in ultraviolet. Even though the neon is much fainter, it glows in the infrared, which allowed the researchers to take advantage of Webb’s advanced instruments.
“In the mid-infrared wavelengths detected by Webb, the neon VI signature was absolutely booming,” explained Michael Reefe, also of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, lead author on the paper published in Nature. “Even though this emission is usually more difficult to detect, Webb’s sensitivity in the mid-infrared cuts through all of the noise.”
The team now hopes to employ this technique to study more typical galaxy clusters. While the Phoenix cluster is unique in many ways, this proof of concept is an important step towards learning about how other galaxy clusters form stars.The James Webb Space Telescope is the world’s premier space science observatory. Webb is solving mysteries in our solar system, looking beyond to distant worlds around other stars, and probing the mysterious structures and origins of our universe and our place in it. Webb is an international program led by NASA with its partners, ESA (European Space Agency) and CSA (Canadian Space Agency).
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Media Contacts
Laura Betz – laura.e.betz@nasa.gov
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.
Hannah Braun hbraun@stsci.edu
Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, Md.
Christine Pulliam – cpulliam@stsci.edu
Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, Md.
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By NASA
2 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
We’ve been talking about this for 2,000 years. Aristotle mentions it. And in our own time, scientists are designing experiments to figure out exactly what’s going on. But there’s no consensus yet.
Here’s what we do know.
The atmosphere isn’t magnifying the Moon. If anything, atmospheric refraction squashes it a little bit. And the Moon’s not closer to us at the horizon. It’s about 1.5 percent farther away. Also, it isn’t just the Moon. Constellations look huge on the horizon, too.
One popular idea is that this is a variation on the Ponzo illusion. Everything in our experience seems to shrink as it recedes toward the horizon — I mean clouds and planes and cars and ships. But the Moon doesn’t do that. So our minds make up a story to reconcile this inconsistency. Somehow the Moon gets bigger when it’s at the horizon. That’s one popular hypothesis, but there are others. And we’re still waiting for the experiment that will convince everyone that we understand this.
So why does the Moon look larger on the horizon? We don’t really know, but scientists are still trying to figure it out.
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Last Updated Feb 12, 2025 Related Terms
General Earth's Moon Lunar Science Planetary Science Science & Research Skywatching The Solar System Explore More
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