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By European Space Agency
Image: This Copernicus Sentinel-2 image shows part of one of the world’s natural wonders – the Great Barrier Reef in the Coral Sea off the east coast of Queensland, Australia.
Zoom in to explore this image at its full resolution or click on the circles to learn more.
The Great Barrier Reef extends for nearly 2300 km and covers an area of more than 344 000 sq km, approximately the size of Italy. It is the largest living organism on Earth and the only living thing the naked eye can see from space.
Despite its name, the Great Barrier Reef is not a single reef, but an interlinked system of about 3000 reefs and 900 coral islands, divided by narrow passages. An area of biodiversity equal in importance to tropical rainforests, the reef hosts more than 1500 species of tropical fish, 400 types of coral, hundreds of species of bird and seaweed and thousands of marine animals, including sharks, barracuda and turtles.
In recognition of its significance the reef was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981.
The section of reef seen here is the southern part off the coast of the Shire of Livingstone in Central Queensland. Part of the mainland and the islands surrounding the coast are visible in the bottom left corner. The tan-coloured sea along the coasts is due to sediment in the water.
A chain of small coral islands can be seen scattered across the centre of the image. The blue hues of the coral contrast with the dark waters of the Coral Sea.
Part of the reef is covered by clouds dominating the upper part of the image. The clouds form a surprisingly straight line, also visible as a distinct shadow cast over the islands below.
Coral reefs worldwide suffer regular damage due to climate change, pollution, ocean acidification and fishing. Furthermore, they are increasingly under threat from coral bleaching, which occurs when the algae that makes up the coral die, causing it to turn white. This phenomenon is associated with increased water temperatures, low salinity and high sunlight levels.
While these coral reefs are ecologically important, they are difficult to map from survey vessels or aircraft because of their remote and shallow location. From their vantage point in space, Earth-observing satellites such as Copernicus Sentinel-2, offer the means to monitor the health of reefs across the globe.
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By NASA
5 min read
How NASA Science Data Defends Earth from Asteroids
Artist’s impression of NASA’s DART mission, which collided with the asteroid Dimorphos in 2022 to test planetary defense techniques. Open science data practices help researchers identify asteroids that pose a hazard to Earth, opening the possibility for deflection should an impact threat be identified. NASA/Johns Hopkins APL/Steve Gribben The asteroid 2024 YR4 made headlines in February with the news that it had a chance of hitting Earth on Dec. 22, 2032, as determined by an analysis from NASA’s Center for Near Earth Object Studies (CNEOS) at the agency’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California. The probability of collision peaked at over 3% on Feb. 18 — the highest ever recorded for an object of its size. This sparked concerns about the damage the asteroid might do should it hit Earth.
New data collected in the following days lowered the probability to well under 1%, and 2024 YR4 is no longer considered a potential Earth impactor. However, the event underscored the importance of surveying asteroid populations to reveal possible threats to Earth. Sharing scientific data widely allows scientists to determine the risk posed by the near-Earth asteroid population and increases the chances of identifying future asteroid impact hazards in NASA science data.
“The planetary defense community realizes the value of making data products available to everyone,” said James “Gerbs” Bauer, the principal investigator for NASA’s Planetary Data System Small Bodies Node at the University of Maryland in College Park, Maryland.
How Scientists Spot Asteroids That Could Hit Earth
Professional scientists and citizen scientists worldwide play a role in tracking asteroids. The Minor Planet Center, which is housed at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts, collects and verifies vast numbers of asteroid and comet position observations submitted from around the globe. NASA’s Small Bodies Node distributes the data from the Minor Planet Center for anyone who wants to access and use it.
A near-Earth object (NEO) is an asteroid or comet whose orbit brings it within 120 million miles of the Sun, which means it can circulate through Earth’s orbital neighborhood. If a newly discovered object looks like it might be an NEO, information about the object appears on the Minor Planet Center’s NEO Confirmation Page. Members of the planetary science community, whether or not they are professional scientists, are encouraged to follow up on these objects to discover where they’re heading.
The asteroid 2024 YR4 as viewed on January 27, 2025. The image was taken by the Magdalena Ridge 2.4m telescope, one of the largest telescopes in NASA’s Planetary Defense network. Asteroid position information from observations such as this one are shared through the Minor Planet Center and NASA’s Small Bodies Node to help scientists pinpoint the chances of asteroids colliding with Earth. NASA/Magdalena Ridge 2.4m telescope/New Mexico Institute of Technology/Ryan When an asteroid’s trajectory looks concerning, CNEOS alerts NASA’s Planetary Defense Coordination Office at NASA Headquarters in Washington, which manages NASA’s ongoing effort to protect Earth from dangerous asteroids. NASA’s Planetary Defense Coordination Office also coordinates the International Asteroid Warning Network (IAWN), which is the worldwide collaboration of asteroid observers and modelers.
Orbit analysis centers such as CNEOS perform finer calculations to nail down the probability of an asteroid colliding with Earth. The open nature of the data allows the community to collaborate and compare, ensuring the most accurate determinations possible.
How NASA Discovered Risks of Asteroid 2024 YR4
The asteroid 2024 YR4 was initially discovered by the NASA-funded ATLAS (Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System) survey, which aims to discover potentially hazardous asteroids. Scientists studied additional data about the asteroid from different observatories funded by NASA and from other telescopes across the IAWN.
At first, 2024 YR4 had a broad uncertainty in its future trajectory that passed over Earth. As the planetary defense community collected more observations, the range of possibilities for the asteroid’s future position on Dec. 22, 2032 clustered over Earth, raising the apparent chances of collision. However, with the addition of even more data points, the cluster of possibilities eventually moved off Earth.
This visualization from NASA’s Center for Near Earth Object Studies shows the evolution of the risk corridor for asteroid 2024 YR4, using data from observations made up to Feb. 23, 2025. Each yellow dot represents the asteroid’s possible location on Dec. 22, 2032. As the range of possible locations narrowed, the dots at first converged on Earth, before skewing away harmlessly. NASA/JPL/CNEOS Having multiple streams of data available for analysis helps scientists quickly learn more about NEOs. This sometimes involves using data from observatories that are mainly used for astrophysics or heliophysics surveys, rather than for tracking asteroids.
“The planetary defense community both benefits from and is beneficial to the larger planetary and astronomy related ecosystem,” said Bauer, who is also a research professor in the Department of Astronomy at the University of Maryland. “Much of the NEO survey data can also be used for searching astrophysical transients like supernova events. Likewise, astrophysical sky surveys produce data of interest to the planetary defense community.”
How Does NASA Stop Asteroids From Hitting Earth?
In 2022, NASA’s DART (Double Asteroid Redirection Test) mission successfully impacted with the asteroid Dimorphos, shortening the time it takes to orbit around its companion asteroid Didymos by 33 minutes. Didymos had no chance of hitting Earth, but the DART mission’s success means that NASA has a tested technique to consider when addressing a future asteroid potential impact threat.
Artist’s impression of NASA’s upcoming NEO Surveyor mission, which will search for potentially hazardous near-Earth objects. The mission will follow open data practices to improve the chances of identifying dangerous asteroids. NASA/JPL-Caltech To increase the chances of discovering asteroid threats to Earth well in advance, NASA is working on a new space-based observatory, NEO Surveyor, which will be the first spacecraft specifically designed to look for asteroids and comets that pose a hazard to Earth. The mission is expected to launch in the fall of 2027, and the data it collects will be available to everyone through NASA archives.
“Many of the NEOs that pose a risk to Earth remain to be found,” Bauer said. “An asteroid impact has a very low likelihood at any given time, but consequences could be high, and open science is an important component to being vigilant.”
For more information about NASA’s approach to sharing science data, visit:
https://science.nasa.gov/open-science.
By Lauren Leese
Web Content Strategist for the Office of the Chief Science Data Officer
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Last Updated Apr 10, 2025 Related Terms
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By NASA
The airborne Lunar Spectral Irradiance (air-LUSI) instrument is moved across the hangar floor by robotic engineer Alexander McCafferty-Leroux ,from right to left, co-investigator Dr. John Woodward, NIST astronomer Dr. Susana Deustua, air-LUSI chief system engineer Dr. Kathleen “Kat” Scanlon, and members of the ER-2 ground crew at NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center in Edwards, California, in March 2025.NASA/Genaro Vavuris Flying high above the clouds and moon-gazing may sound like a scene from a timeless romance, but NASA did just that in the name of Earth science research. In March 2025 pilots took the agency’s ER-2 science aircraft on a series of night flights over NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center in Edwards, California, as the Moon increased in visible size. For those few nights, the high-flying plane was converted into a one-of-a-kind airborne lunar observatory.
The Airborne Lunar Spectral Irradiance, or air-LUSI, mission observed the Moon at different phases and measured the sunlight reflected by the lunar surface. Specifically, the instrument tracks the amount of light reflected at different wavelengths. This information enables scientists to use the Moon as a calibration tool for Earth-observing sensors.
As an “absolute reference, the Moon also becomes the perfect benchmark for satellites to consistently and accurately measure processes on Earth,” said Kevin Turpie, air-LUSI’s principal investigator and a researcher based at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. This helps scientists to improve the precision of many different measurements, including data on weather patterns, vegetation growth, and ocean conditions.
As the highest-flying platform for airborne science, the ER-2 can fly the air-LUSI instrument in the stratosphere, above 95% of the atmosphere. Data collected at an altitude nearing 70,000 feet are highly accurate because the air is predominantly clear of the gases and particles found in the lower atmosphere that can interfere with measurements.
The ER-2 aircraft is parked in a hangar at NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center in Edwards, California, in March 2025. The plane is prepared for takeoff to support the airborne Lunar Spectral Irradiance, or air-LUSI, mission.NASA/Genaro Vavuris “To date, air-LUSI measurements of the Moon are the most accurate ever made,” said Kelsey Bisson, the NASA program scientist supporting the mission. “Air-LUSI data can advance our ability to understand the Earth and our weather, and they provide a new way to calibrate satellites that can result in cost savings.”
The quality of these data has transformative implications for satellite and Earth observing systems. The improved accuracy and enhanced ability provided by air-LUSI data flown on the ER-2 reduces the need for onboard reference devices, effectually cutting satellite costs.
The air-LUSI project is a collaboration between scientists and engineers from NASA, the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the U.S. Geological Survey, the University of Maryland Baltimore County, and McMaster University in Ontario.
The ER-2 ground crew Wissam Habbal, left, and Dr. Kevin Turpie, airborne Lunar Spectral Irradiance (air-LUSI) principal investigator, guide delicate fiber optic and electric cabling into place while uploading the air-LUSI instrument onto the ER-2 aircraft in March 2025 at NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center in Edwards, California.NASA/Genaro Vavuris “The collective effort of the American and Canadian team members offers an opportunity for truly exciting engineering and science collaboration,” said Andrew Gadsden, associate professor and associate chair for graduate studies in mechanical engineering at McMaster University, and co-investigator on the air-LUSI project. The McMaster team developed the Autonomous Robotic Telescope Mount Instrument System and High-Altitude Aircraft Mounted Robotic (HAAMR) telescope mount, which support the air-LUSI system.
Dr. John Woodward, of the National Institute of Standards and Technology and co-investigator on the airborne Lunar Spectral Irradiance (air-LUSI) mission, prepares the instrument for upload onto the ER-2 aircraft in March 2025 at NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center in Edwards, California.NASA/Genaro Vavuris The HAAMR telescope mount was integrated onto the ER-2 and flown for the first time during the science flights in March. This new lunar tracking system is contributing to what John Woodward IV, co-investigator for air-LUSI, called the “highest accuracy measurements” of moonlight. To improve Earth observation technology, air-LUSI represents an important evolutionary step.
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By NASA
Explore This SectionEarth Earth Observer Editor’s Corner Feature Articles Meeting Summaries NewsScience in the News Calendars In Memoriam MoreArchives Style Guide 34 min read
Style Guidelines for ‘The Earth Observer’ Newsletter
IntroductionThe Earth Observer Editorial ProcessTypes of Articles in The Earth Observer
General article format
— Announcement article
— Feature article
— Hybrid article
— In Memoriam article
— Kudos article
— Summary articleGuidelines for Preparing Articles for The Earth Observer
— Writing for the web
— Catchy headline
— Naming files
— Use visuals to draw the reader in
— Search engine optimization
—— Headline and subheads
—— Links
—— Alternate text for graphics
— Submitting An Outline
— Submitting Your DraftSpecific Style Guidelines
— Acronyms
— Affiliations
— Capitalize Earth, Moon, Sun
— Chemical formulas
— Compound words
— Cross-references
— Dates, months, and seasons
— Directions and regions
— Footnotes
— Formal titles
— Hyperlinks, the how and the why
—— How to insert a hyperlink
— Hyphens, en dashes, and em dashes—oh my!!
— Italics and quotes
— Items in a series
— Numbers
— Ordinal numbers
— References
— References to teams
— State abbreviations
— Typographical emphasisGuidelines for Graphics, Photos, Visualizations, Animations
— Inserting figures, photos, animations, and visualizations
— Caption, credit, and tags
— Graphic/photo requirementsFinal Thoughts Introduction
This document contains guidelines to assist you as you prepare articles for The Earth Observer (EO) newsletter. Our Editorial Team appreciates your cooperation in keeping these guidelines in mind as you prepare articles for submission. Our team reviews every article, but following the style guidelines will expedite the editorial process.
Please be aware that this style guide is a living document and as such continues to evolve. If it has been a while since you have submitted an article for The Earth Observer, please be sure you are using the latest version of the Style Guide. The date of the most recent update is printed in the footer of the document to make it easier to maintain the most current version of the document.
Editing is sometimes more art than science, and while the Editorial Team will endeavor to follow the rules that follow in most cases, there may be specific cases where the Executive Editor may decide to deviate from these guidelines.
The Earth Observer Editorial Process
The EO has a robust editorial team to assist with the editorial process to maintain the quality and style of the publication.
The EO editorial staff includes:
Steve Platnick, assigned task representative Alan B. Ward, executive editor Dalia Kirshenblat, managing editor Doug Bennett, associate editor Stacy W. Kish, assistant/technical editor Ernest Hilsenrath, technical editor Jim Irons, technical editor Mike Marosy, design/production The editorial process is iterative. The author will typically go through two rounds of edits with the EO Editorial Team. The text is then put into a preview layout on a staging server for the author’s final review before the story is published on the EO website.
Types of Articles in The Earth Observer
The Earth Observer provides authors an opportunity to tell their compelling stories of Earth Science. As such it does not impose strict word count limits, but the EO has established certain general guidelines that provide a framework to follow for several types of articles.
General article format
Please write articles in MS Word and save as a .doc file.
The article should begin with an introduction that provides the essentials – who, what, where, when, and why – to provide the reader with an overview of the topic to be discussed. For articles about meetings include the number of people who attended (e.g., in-person and virtual) and the objective of the meeting.
The introduction paragraph is followed by a transition paragraph that takes the reader into the main content of the article. The article should wrap up with a conclusion.
The suggested page length for each type of article includes inserted visual elements. In addition to the Word file, please also send separate higher resolution files for graphics, photos, animations, or visualizations. More specific requirements are available in the Guidelines for Graphics, Photos, Visualizations, Animations.
Announcement article
Announcement articles promote a variety of topics. Historically this type of article includes releases of new or updated Earth Science data products, information on new tools for processing and viewing data, previews of outreach activities for the Science Support Office (e.g., AGU, Earth Day), and details on upcoming science meetings or workshops (i.e., beyond the information conveyed on the NASA science calendar).
The article is structured like a Feature article, but it is shorter, no more than two pages, including graphics and captions – see Guidelines for Graphics, Photos, Visualizations, Animations.
For Example: NASA Invites You to Create Landsat-Inspired Arts and Crafts, The Earth Observer, Mar–Apr 2021, 33:4, 13–14. Other examples are available on the archived issues of The Earth Observer.
If you have an idea for an Announcement article, please email the EO Editorial Team who will work with you on a draft. The EO Editorial Team emails are available in the section – The Earth Observer Editorial Process
Feature article
Feature articles cover a wide range of Earth science topics, including satellite mission launches and historic milestones, field campaign updates, data processing tool tutorials, and summaries of NASA Science Support Office outreach events. Typically, these articles span ~8–14 pages (3000–4000 words). There are cases where longer or shorter articles are acceptable.
A photo essay format for some topics, such as outreach event summaries, offer an option to convey a significant portion of the information using a collection of photos and descriptive captions.
For Example: Looking Back on Looking Up: The 2024 Total Solar Eclipse
If you have an idea for an Feature article, please email the EO Editorial Team who will work with you on a draft. The EO Editorial Team emails are available in the section – The Earth Observer Editorial Process
Hybrid article
Hybrid articles combine elements of a Feature and a Summary article. Often, these articles start with a few pages of descriptive text about the subject, followed by a summary of a particular meeting. Owing to their hybrid nature, these articles tend to run a bit longer than the standard Summary article. These articles typically range between 8–12 pages (3000–5000 words.)
If you have an idea for a Hybrid article, please email the EO Editorial Team who will work with you on a draft. The EO Editorial Team emails are available in the section – The Earth Observer Editorial Process
In Memoriam article
In Memoriam articles recognize individuals who have played prominent roles in NASA Earth Science. These articles tend to include biographical information about the deceased individual, a brief mention of their education, and a summary of their major career achievements – with emphasis on achievements related to NASA. A typical In Memoriam article layout includes one or more photos, including one of the person being memorialized.
For Example: In Memoriam: Mary Cleave [1947–2023] The In Memoriam link provides recent examples of In Memoriam articles published in The Earth Observer. Other articles are available by searching the publication’s archived issues.
This type of article is structured like a Feature article with the exception that the subject is referred to by their first name. In Memoriam drafts should be no more than two pages in Word – including graphics and captions – see Guidelines for Graphics, Photos, Visualizations, Animations.
If you know someone to eulogize in The Earth Observer for their contributions to NASA Earth Science, please email the EO Editorial Team who will work with you on a draft. The EO Editorial Team emails are available in the section – The Earth Observer Editorial Process
Kudos article
Kudos articles acknowledges individuals or groups either within or connected to (funded by) NASA who receive significant NASA-wide awards.
A Kudo article follows a structure similar to a Feature article. It should be a maximum of one page in Word – including a photo of person(s) or group being honored – see Guidelines for Graphics, Photos, Visualizations, Animations.
For Example: MOPITT Canadian Principal Investigator Receives Two Awards, The Earth Observer, Mar–Apr 2021, 33:2, 28 [bottom]. Other examples are available by searching through archived issues of The Earth Observer.
If you know an individual or a group of people worthy of recognition for their NASA-related achievement, please email the EO Editorial Team who will work with you on a draft submission. The EO Editorial Team emails are available in the section – The Earth Observer Editorial Process
Summary article
Summary articles provide an overview of recent scientific meetings and/or workshops. Ideally, a Summary article should be no more than 6 pages (~2500 words).
Provide the flavor of the event rather than describe it in detail. Summarize the overall nature and sense of sessions. The Editorial Team has found that a mix of narrative descriptions of key (usually programmatic) presentations (e.g., plenary sessions) and summaries with less detail for the remaining (e.g., technical) presentations is optimum.
Now that The Earth Observer is published online, it is the view of the Editorial Team format summary articles using a “minutes-style” report of the meeting. While space no longer precludes publishing such an article as it did in the past, the format does not translate well to the online communication medium. Unless a reader is really interested in the specific topic(s) discussed in the article, it is likely that they will not scroll through to the end – no matter how nice the layout looks.
If you have an idea for a Summary article, please email the EO Editorial Team who will work with you on a draft. The EO Editorial Team emails are available in the section – The Earth Observer Editorial Process
Guidelines for Preparing Articles for The Earth Observer
EOis a hybrid publication, landing somewhere between a science journal and popular science magazine. Therefore, the focus should be on phenomena rather than data. The article provides an opportunity to publicize your mission, research to ~1653 subscribers (as of August 2024) around the world. Please review the content in this guideline before writing your article and reach out to the Editorial Team if you have any questions.
Writing for the web
The EO audience ranges from scientists to the general public. When writing an article, use plain language and active voice. When in doubt, write the article so that it would be understandable to a friend or relative not in the field.
For Example:
Passive voice: The rate of evaporation is controlled by the size of an opening.
Active voice: The size of an opening controls the rate of evaporation.
Avoid using jargon and technical language. When it is necessary to use technical language, please use ITALICS to offset the word in the text. Follow the italicized word with a brief definition or explanation.
For Example: Inference – formally derived uncertainty for area estimates of biomass, height, or other metrics – can take different forms, each of which includes specific assumptions. In this breakout session, participants considered the strengths and limitations of different inference types (e.g., intensity of computation or the ability to use different models).
Writing content for a website differs from print. The human eye is more inclined to read shorter paragraphs separated by breaks. It is ideal to keep sentences and paragraphs short.
Use one space after a period. The two spaces after a period is an artifact of conventional type writers.
Avoid editorializing in the article. For example, do not characterize a spacewalk as “daring” or “dangerous.” Describe the events factually. If things are described well, readers easily can decide for themselves whether they are daring or dangerous. Never, under any circumstances, insert any personal, political, ideological, or religious opinions or beliefs into NASA news media products.
Catchy headline
Write a headline that is short, searchable, and shareable. Try to keep the headline to 60 characters (including spaces). Longer headlines may be invisible to search engines.
Unlike journal articles, The Earth Observer only includes individuals who made a significant contributions to the EO article. A typical article should only lists one or two authors. In some occasions, an article may have up to four authors. The authors should be formatted as follows:
First Last, Organization, author email
If there are more you wish to give credit, consider doing so in an Acknowledgment section, as discussed in the next paragraph.
Naming files
For consistency moving documents through the editorial process, please name the file by the file type, the topic, and the author’s last name.
For Example: announcement_topic_author
feature_topic_author
hybrid_topic_author
memoriam_topic_author
kudos_topic_author
summary_topic_author
Use visuals to draw the reader in
The Earth Observer is now published online. Visual elements are critical to all EO stories and are a required element to submissions. The Editorial Team would prefer having too many graphics (i.e., photos, figures, animations, and visualizations) than too few. It is helpful to insert this content into the Word file as well as include the graphics as separate files at the time of the initial submission of the draft for editorial review. See the Guidelines for Graphics, Photos, Visualizations, Animations section for more information.
Search engine optimization
Search Engine Optimization (SEO) is a broad set of techniques to capitalize how search engines, such as Google, scrub content on the internet. By optimizing how articles are written, it is possible to influence where content shows up in an organic, online search. The different approaches can fill an entire book. This style guide provides a few pointers to help tweak articles to optimize how the content appears in online searches.
Headline and subheads
A headline should be clear and compelling to reveal what the content is about as well as entice the searcher to click for more. A SEO headline is a ranking factor in search engine results. A headline can be crafted to rank higher in search results, which increases an article’s visibility and generate more clicks. This can be done by using SEO search terms — those terms that a person would type into a search box — in the headline. Shorter headlines (i.e., 60 characters including spaces) are often more effective during searches.
Subheads provide a way to organize an article and separates the content into digestible sections. Like headlines, subheads can be optimized for SEO searches. Subheads may include key takeaways from the specific section. Keep subheads clear and concise.
Links
Earth Observer articles are now being posted online. Footnotes are no longer a functional option, which is a significant change for authors who have published articles in our print issues in the past. It is helpful to hyperlink words or short phrases in the article that directs the reader to additional content from the meeting, such as presentations, poster sessions, talks by attendees, programs/satellites, journal articles, etc. Relevant links should also be added to captions. See the Hyperlinks section for guidance on how to insert and format a hyperlink in the article.
Internal links tie content in the article to other pages within an organization, such as NASA, to boost site authority. External links direct a reader to sites outside the organization. This approach also drives up site authority in SEO searches. By connecting relevant pages, it will improve article navigation and ensure users can locate relevant information.
Alternate text for graphics
Alternate text, or alt text, is the small description added to visual elements on the back end of a website. Search engines use the alt text to identify relevant content. Alt text also improves accessibility for all users. Tools that read webpages aloud can read alt text to help explain what visual elements contain for the visually impaired.
Alt text should be concise, accurate, and use keywords. Keywords are highly relevant words or phrases associated with the picture and the content of the article.
For Example: Figure 1. Forty SWOT Early Adopter (EA) teams span the globe with a wide range of operational and applied science project topics.
Figure credit: NASA
Key word tag: A global map showing the locations of early adopter organizations.
Submitting An Outline
An outline is not requiredprior to submitting the first draft of an article, but an outline may be beneficial for lengthy articles (i.e., features, hybrids). Outlines are particularly helpful for first-time authors or when an author is seeking guidance about the appropriateness of content for The Earth Observer. It is hard for the team to comment without seeing something in writing. More generally, submitting an outline presents an opportunity for the editorial team to provide input on the article during the writing process – as opposed to waiting until the first draft is submitted.
Submitting Your Draft
Do not submit a draft for review unless it is complete (i.e., contains all visual elements, captions, credits, and content). Unless you clearly indicate otherwise, the Editorial Team will assume your submission is ready for them to review. Version control problems result when text is updated after reviews have started.
The initial draft submitted for editorial review should include graphics. including captions and credits. The editorial process is delayed when graphics, credits, and captions are added iteratively once the process has begun.
Specific Style Guidelines
Over more than 35 years as a NASA publication, The Earth Observer has developed its own unique style. Please review these specific guidelines detailed below, and let the Editorial Team know if you have any questions. In addition, The Earth Observer also adheres to the NASA Stylebook and Communications Manual, 9th edition (June 2020), which is closely aligned with the AP Stylebook.
Acronyms
Science is rife with acronyms. On first usage, always spell out the acronym and follow with the acronym in parenthesis. From that point on in the article, use the acronym. To ensure photos, figures, visualizations, and animations are understandable if removed from the larger text, please spell out acronyms in captions.
Well-known acronyms (e.g., NASA, U.S., etc.) do not need to be spelled out. Separate the acronym for United States (e.g., U.S.) and United Kingdom (e.g., U.K.) with periods.
For Example: Level-1 (L1), Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI), International Space Station (ISS), Precision Orbit Determination (POD), etc.
Only capitalize proper nouns as defined by the dictionary or AP style. The Earth Observer style does capitalize the first letter of a specific product that will be turned into an acronym.
For Example: Do not capitalize the first letter of each word in “solid rocket booster (SBR),” even though the subsequent use of the acronym SRB will appear in the article.
A compound acronym arises when parentheses occur inside of parentheses. In this situation, use [BRACKETS] for the outer set of parentheses and (PARENTHESES) for those inside.
For Example: Thomas Neumann [GSFC—Deputy Director of GSFC’s Earth Sciences Division (ESD)] welcomed meeting participants on behalf of the ESD.
Affiliations
Use a possessive for an organization when it is part of NASA. Do not use a possessive when using the agency as an adjective.
For Example: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC); subsequent references would just use “GSFC.”
For Example: SWOT data products available through PO.DAAC provides centralized, searchable access that is available using an in-cloud commercial web service through the NASA EarthData portal.
Write out an organization that is not part of NASA.
For Example: Gustavo Oliveira [Clark University] presented details on the project “Irrigation as Climate-Change Adaptation in the Cerrado Biome of Brazil.”
When multiple “levels” of affiliation are listed, start with the “top-level” affiliation as a possessive followed by lower level. If the affiliations are mentioned again later in the article, only the acronym for the lowest level needs to be repeated.
For Example: For NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center’s Global Modeling and Assimilation Office (GMAO), subsequent references to this entity would be “GMAO.”
For Example: For University of Maryland, Baltimore County’s Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center (ESSIC), subsequent references to this entity would be “ESSIC.”
When a person is affiliated with two (or more) distinct entities, separate the two entities by slashes.
For Example: Project Scientist Felix Landerer (NASA/JPL), followed by detailed assessments of the G-FO mission and operations status from the core SDS centers and flight operations teams.
When a NASA Center and contractor are listed, please list the NASA Center followed by contractor and separate the two entities by a slash.
For Example: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC)/Global Science & Technology, Inc. (GST).
Capitalize Earth, Moon, Sun
NASA capitalizes the first letter in Earth, Moon, and Sun.In addition, do not use the modified ‘the’ before Earth.
For Example: This strategy acknowledges the urgency of global changes, such as accelerating environmental shifts, understanding Earth’s interconnected systems, and developing scalable information.
Chemical formulas
Chemical formulas should be treated like acronyms. Spell out a chemical formula upon first use in an article followed by the chemical formula in parenthesis. Use appropriate subscripts and superscripts in the chemical formula. From that point onward, use the chemical formula in the article.
For Example: The data show that global and East Asian emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) have decreased since 2010, contrasting India and Southeast Asia’s rising trends. In Southeast Asia, NOx and sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions increased from 1990–2018, while black carbon (BC) emissions peaked in 2007.
Compound words
Make one word out of all compound words (e.g., multipurpose, multiangle).
Exception: Hyphenate cases where the same vowel repeats (e.g., bio-optical, multi-imager).
Cross-references
It is common to reference a previous EO article to provide context and background for the current story. The Editorial Staff recommends authors cross-reference prior EOarticle. The title of the article, volume, issue, and page range in parenthesis. The information should be italicized, except for “The Earth Observer,” which should be plain text.
The name of the cross-referenced article should be hyperlinked to that article. You can find past Earth Observer newsletters on the archive page.
For Example: ESIP was created in response to a National Research Council (NRC) review of the Earth Observing System Data and Information System (EOSDIS). (To learn more about EOSDIS, see Earth Science Data Operations: Acquiring, Distributing, and Delivering NASA Data for the Benefit of Society, in the March–April 2017 issue of The Earth Observer [Volume 29, Issue 2, pp. 4–18].) As NASA’s first Earth Observing System (EOS) missions were launching or preparing to launch, the NRC called on NASA to develop a new, distributed structure that would be operated and managed by the Earth science community and would include observation and research, application, and education data.
Dates, months, and seasons
When referencing a date, spell out the month, followed by the day (if included) and year. This style differs from AP. A comma always follows a year if the date is written in-line of the sentence.
For Example: January 27, 2022; January 2022
For Example: PACE launched on February 8, 2024, from Vandenberg Space Force Base in California.
Capitalize a season followed by a year, but not when just referring to a season.
For Example: Spring 2022; summer
Spell out time zones, such as Eastern Daylight Time, and thereafter replace with the acronym (i.e., EDT).
For Example: In Cleveland, the eclipse began at 1:59 PM. Eastern Daylight Time (EDT), with totality spanning 3:13–3:17 PM.
Directions and regions
EO articles follow AP style for directions (e.g., north, south, east, west, northeast, southwest, norther, western, southern, eastern). The directions should be lowercase when indicating a compass direction and when it is used to describe sections of states or cities.
For Example: The cold front is moving east.
The direction should be capitalized for a proper name or large regions.
For Example: NASA’s South/Southeast Asia Research Initiative (SARI) is a regional initiative under the LCLUC program that addresses the critical needs of the South/Southeast Asia region.
For Example: West Virginia or North Dakota
Footnotes
The Earth Observer has transitioned to an online publication. Footnotes will no longer be used in articles. Instead of footnotes, the publication will use hyperlinks to direct readers to additional content. Refer to the section on Hyperlinks for more information on how to include a hyperlink in an article. A good mantra to follow – if you are unsure if a reference is needed, leave it out.
Formal titles
Formal titles, such as Ms. or Dr., are used in articles that are more personal, such as Kudos, In Memoriam, and The Editor’s Corner. For all other articles, the professional title is not used. When you introduce a person in the story, present the name in BOLD followed by their agency and position in ITALICS, offset by brackets.
For Example: First Last [Agency—Job Title] began by providing an update on the status of the new launch date for the. . . .
After the individual is introduced in the article, EO style follows a particular style for using the name again. If the individual’s name is included in the same paragraph where the person was introduced, only use the last name [UNBOLD]. If the individual is mentioned later in the article, several paragraphs removed from introduction, use the full name [FIRST LAST, UNBOLD].
Hyperlinks, the how and the why
Prior to moving online, The Earth Observer used footnotes to reference information in an article. The online publication will now use hyperlinks to refer the reader to additional content on a topic. As a general rule, hyperlink content regarding missions, instruments, field campaigns, models, papers, and other programs named in the article. It is not necessary to link to each individual institution mentioned when individuals are identified in summaries.
How to insert a hyperlink
The first step in this process is to identify the anchor text to highlight in the sentence. The anchor text includes a word or phrase that points the reader to additional content.
For Example: Anchor text: Volume 35 Issue 6 of The Earth Observer
Find the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) for the webpage. The URL is an address that specifies the location of a resource on the internet.
For Example: URL: https://eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/eo_pdfs/EO%20Nov-Dec%202023-Digital%20508.pdf
Note: When inserting a link to a prior published article from The Earth Observer’s archive, be certain to capture the URL for the first page of the referenced article, as opposed to the issue’s first page.
To insert a hyperlink, copy the URL from the website where the additional content can be found. Select the word or phrase to use as anchor text. Do not include an acronym as part of the anchor text for a hyperlink. Select the hyperlink command under the Insert dropdown menu. Paste the URL into the link box. Be sure the ‘Web Page or File’ tab is selected (not the Email tab). The hyperlinked text will appear blue and underlined.
For Example: It is possible to find this information in Volume 35 Issue 6 of The Earth Observer.
For Example: The Hyperwall presentation highlighted recent discoveries from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) mission.
Hyphens, en dashes, and em dashes—oh my!!
Hyphen: – A hyphen is used to separate compound adjectives or words.
For Example: The satellite reached a near-Earth orbit.
En Dash: – An en dash spans the length of a typed lowercase ‘n.’ This special character is used to separate numbers.
For Example: The meeting was held March 5–8 in Denver, CO. [Note there is no space between the numbers in this example.]
The Earth Observer style follows the NASA style guide that uses an en dash to insert a pause in the sentence. The en dash is set apart by a space on either side. In this instance, the en dash is used instead of an em dash.
For Example: The passport identified six hidden images – all six posters from the Science Explorers Poster Series– strategically placed within the exhibit’s perimeter.
You can insert an en dash in Word on a Mac by typing the “Option” and “hyphen/dash” keys simultaneously.
You can also insert an en dash in Word using the Insert tab and select Advanced Symbols. A box will open with a variety of characters. Select “Garamond” from the Font pulldown menu (Garamond is the newsletter’s preferred font), then select the – symbol (or “en dash”) from the array of options displayed. You will then see a confirmation of your selection appear below the symbol options (i.e., “Insert [Garamond] character 150 (Unicode character 2013).” Please note: the character number (150 in the case of Garamond) could be different. For example, an en dash in Palatino font is character 208.
Em Dash: — An em dash spans the length of a typed lowercase ‘m.’ This special character is used when separating the organization and the job title when introducing a person in the article. In other styles, the em dash is used as a pause in a sentence. Following NASA style guidelines, the pause is provided by the en dash.
For Example: Thomas Neumann [GSFC—Deputy Director of GSFC’s Earth Sciences Division (ESD)] welcomed meeting participants on behalf of the ESD.
You can insert an em dash in Word by going to the Insert tab and selecting Advanced Symbols. A box will open with a variety of characters. Select character 151. For more detailed guidance, please refer to the section above regarding how to insert an en dash.
Italics and quotes
Place Latin phrases in ITALICS (e.g., in situ, a priori, ad hoc, ex officio) on every appearance in the article. Do not italicize abbreviated Latin phrases (e.g., i.e., a.k.a., et al.). Use the Latin phrase i.e., instead of ‘such as’ and e.g., instead of ‘that is to say.’
For Example: The Afternoon Satellite Constellation, a.k.a., the“A-Train,” can see Earth in a whole new dimension.
For Example: Guy Schumann [Water in Sight]explained this Swedish start-up company uses SWOT data to validate in situ gauge data in Malawi.
Place technical language in the text in ITALICS followed by a definition. Only use the italics on the first usage of the word.
For Example:There were several large polynyas – areas of open ice where sea ice would be expected – detected.
Items in a series
The Earth Observer deviates from AP style in the use of commas in a list or series. Use the Oxford comma in a series of items.
For Example: The sensor measures at three different wavelengths corresponding to blue, green, red, and infrared light.
In more complex series where one of the items is a series of items within a series, it is permissible to use semi-colons to separate the series (see below).
For Example: The blue, green, and red channels; the two-infrared channels; and ultraviolet channel were all impacted.
Numbers
In the article, spell out zero to nine. Use numerals for any number greater than or equal to 10. If a sentence contains several numbers, excluding a year, that are both greater than and less than 10, use the numerals for all numbers.
For Example: Improving the data calibrations of the accelerometer measurements – which are noise contaminated on one of the two G-FO spacecraft – remains a core focus of the project SDS team.
For Example: The NASA Hyperwall served as the backdrop for 57 Hyperwall Storiesat the meeting, including 8 presentations delivered by the 2023 winnersof the AGU Michael Freilich Student Visualization Competition.
For Example: Following the project team’s status presentations, there was a 30-minute session to answer questions from the science community and discuss in more detail the mission performance, near-term operations and data processing plans, as well as to gather suggestions and feedback from the community.
Ordinal numbers
Ordinal numbers are words representing position or rank in sequential order. The EO follows AP rules in how to present ordinal numbers in an article. Spell out one through nine and use figures for 10 and above. This rule holds for article headlines and subheads.
For Example: AEOIP Holds Third Annual Workshop
For Example: As GPM is now well into its 10th year in orbit, the time is fitting to reflect on and celebrate what this mission has accomplished and showcase its contributions to science and society.
References
The Earth Observer is not a peer-reviewed journal and typically does not include a list of references. It is helpful to hyperlink key words/phrases to other resources, such as journal articles. See Hyperlinks section to learn how to insert and format this text.
In rare instances when a formal reference is required (e.g., referencing a Figure that originally appeared in another journal article), please use theAmerican Meteorological Society format.
References to teams
In a story, spell out “Science Team (ST)” in the first instance and use the team acronym from that point forward in the story.
For Example: The Precipitation Measurement Mission (PMM) Science Team (ST) includes more than 20 international partners.
For other named teams, use the initial caps for the team name and then use “Team” as shorthand afterwards (e.g., “Informatics Team” first time, then abbreviate as “Team” subsequently).
Do not capitalize generic references to a team (e.g., a team of experts).
State abbreviations
The Earth Observer differs from AP style in how it presents state abbreviations. This publication uses the two-letter postal code for state abbreviations.
For Example: The meeting was held March 5–8 in Denver, CO.
Typographical emphasis
Please do not use specialized typographic formatting (e.g., Heading 1, Heading 2, etc.). Instead, please use internal formatting (e.g., BOLD and ITALIC) as directed in the style guide (e.g., headings, subheads, author/speaker names, etc.). If you do use the specialized typographic formatting, it affects the insertion and layout of text on the EO website, which takes time to correct and slows publication.
When inserting a table, do not use framed or shaded boxes.
Units
Do not spell out units. Use the standard abbreviation. Include both English and metric units in the text. One exception is The Editor’s Corner column, which does not use both the English and metric units.
For Example: The data collected from G/G-FO has a native resolution of about 300 km (~186 mi).
Guidelines for Graphics, Photos, Visualizations, Animations
The EO supports several visual options to enhance the text of an article. A figure refers to a visual display of data. An photo refers to a photograph. An animation is a series of images or model results that illustrate a concept. A visualization is a video of content.
To maintain a consistent design for The Earth Observer, please insert the graphic, photo, animation, or visualization in the appropriate location in the Word document. Along with the Word document, please submit the photo, graphic, visualization, or animation as separate files.
Inserting figures, photos, animations, and visualizations
Upon first usage in the text, include the correct graphic descriptor (i.e., figure, photo, animation, or visualization) and appropriate number in the text in bold. Restart numbering for each visual element type (e.g., Figure 1, Photo 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, Photo 2, Visualization 1).
For Example: The GMI is a 13-channel conically scanning PMW radiometer providing observations across a wide swath (885 km or ~550 mi) to estimate precipitation – see Figure 1.
The EO editorial staff ask that no additional formatting be used when inserting these files into the Word document. At the location in the text where the photo, figure, animation, or visualization should appear in the story, advance the text by two lines. Place the cursor in the first blank line. Go to the insert tab and select the picture icon. Select ‘Picture from File’ from the dropdown. Navigate to the location on your computer where the file is located and select ‘Insert.’
Caption, credit, and tags
After inserting the figure, photo, visualization, or animation, provide a caption and credit. It is important to think of the caption and credit as stand-alone items in the story.
The graphic may need to be revised to accommodate EO style. Remove indicators, ‘a’, b’, etc from panels or items of note. EO style requires that different panels or points of interest in the graph should use “pointers,” such as top, middle, bottom.
The caption should be descriptive and not overly technical. It should convey the content in image/figure without relying too heavily on the surrounding text to add context. Relevant links should also be added to captions. Spell out all acronyms, whether for equipment or institutions, are already spelled out in the text, because the image can be lifted from the article and used without the article where it originated. The pointer in the caption should be enclosed in brackets and the text ITALICIZED (e.g., [left]).
The credit line should include the name of the institution or individual who should be credited for the image/figure/photograph. If an institution is listed, write the name [NO ITALICS]. Ifan individual is listed, include their institution in brackets. If the credit refers to a journal article, please use a reference to the journal (e.g., Williams et al. 2024) and link the credit reference to the DOI for the journal article. Note: there is no period after the credit line.
For Example:
Photo 1. Group photo of 2024 Quadrennial Ozone Symposium in-person attendees at the University of Colorado, Boulder’s University Memorial Center.
Photo credit: Chelsea Thompson [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]
Photo 2. Sophie Godin-Beekman presents awards during the QOS dinner. Luke Western accepts the Dobson Award [left]; [Herman Smith receives the Farman award [middle]; and Valerie Thouret accepts the Farman award on behalf of Philippe Nédélec [right].
Photo credits: Irina Petropavlovskikh [CIRES Global Monitoring Laboratory]
Figure 1.Annual mean anomalies of ozone (%) in the upper stratosphere [top three panels] near 42 km (26 mi) altitude or 2-hPa pressure, and for the lower stratosphere, [bottom three panels] near 22 km (14 mi) or 50 hPa for three zonal bands: 35°N–60°N [top graph in each grouping] , 20°S–20°N [middle graph in each grouping], and 35°S–60°S [bottom graph in each grouping]. Anomalies are with respect to the 1998–2008 baseline. Colored lines correspond to different long-term satellite records. The black line is the merged ground-based dataset. The gray-shaded area shows the range of chemistry–climate model simulations from CCMI-1 refC2 (SPARC/IO3C/GAW 2019).
Figure credit: from the BAMS State of the Climate in 2023
Along with the caption, please include alternate keywords to include with the graphic. The alternative text does not appear with the article, but is added to the backend of website (i.e., Content Management System). The alt text aids in SEO. See the section on Search Engine Optimization for additional guidance.
Key word tag: A global map showing the locations of early adopter organizations.
If a figure or photo contain multiple elements, provide directionals in the caption to direction the reader to the different elements. The directionals should be italicized and in brackets. When referencing multiple Figures at once, use an en dash to separate the figure numbers.
For Example [in text]: After the presentation, the attendees heard from Karen St. Germain [NASA HQ—Director of NASA’s Earth Science Division], who gave inspiring remarks and answered questions for 15 minutes – see Photos 6–7.
For Example: Photos 6–7. Former NASA astronaut Paul Richards takes audience questions at the NASA Earth Day event. Credit: NASA
For Example: Figure 2. The Ghana Climate Hazards Center Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 climate projection dataset map of temperatures exceeding 41 °C (106 °F) [left], future climate projection (SSP) for 2050 [middle], and the difference between the two [right]. Figure credit: Williams et al. 2024
Graphic/photo requirements
Photos and graphics should be at least 1440 pixels wide. If the photo is small or low resolution, padding will be added to each side to fit the dimensions for the website. Provide high-resolution graphics source files of all graphics. Submit graphics and photos as a .gif, .tif, or .eps file. Do not resize photos or graphics. Submit raw data in plain text for tables. The Editorial Team will reconfigure the content into tables to insert on the EO website. Final Thoughts
There are many style topics not specified here. As stated earlier, the NASA Stylebook and Communications Manual and AP Style Guide (in that order) should be followed when something is not explicitly described in this guide.
In addition, previous articles from The Earth Observer (particularly those from recent years) can serve as templates for future articles. It is a good idea when preparing to submit an article to look at some previous articles available in The Earth Observer archive.
The Earth Observer: Editorial Guidelines
Last Updated: 01/30/25
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Last Updated Apr 08, 2025 Related Terms
Earth Science View the full article
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By NASA
Since joining NASA in 2017 as a contractor supporting the International Space Station, Caroline Cawthon has held many roles supporting real-time operations as a certified flight controller, team lead, and lead systems engineer.
Caroline Cawthon’s official NASA portrait. NASA is one of the biggest most impressive networks of engineering, science, and space program expertise in the world and to not leverage that experience in mentorship would be a waste.
Caroline Cawthon
CLDP Engineering and Integration Lead
Now, she is supporting America’s future in orbit as the systems engineering and integration lead for NASA’s Commercial Low Earth Orbit Development Program engineering technical authority. Cawthon supports the program’s chief engineer office. In this position, she plays a key role in the oversight of phase 1 partner requirements and processes as part of the program’s two-phase approach to support the development of commercial space stations.
Growing up in military and NASA communities, Cawthon was fascinated with aviation and aerospace from a young age and aspired to become a fighter pilot and engineer. She first met an astronaut while attending Space Camp at the Euro Space Center in Belgium, sparking her interest in human spaceflight and solidifying her goals to work for NASA, make an impact, and be a part of making history. She later earned her bachelor’s degree in chemical and materials engineering and her master’s degree in aeronautics and space systems.
Cawthon attending Space Camp as a child at the Euro Space Center in Belgium. Image courtesy of Caroline Cawthon Cawthon describes the best part of her day as the people she works with, and her passionate and mission-driven team reminds her that the mission she’s working toward will make a difference in the future of human spaceflight.
“Between the program, engineering team, and our industry partners, there are thousands of years of experience with human spaceflight that I get to leverage every day to learn and grow in my role and to help NASA accomplish our mission,” shared Cawthon.
A recent example of this mission-driven teamwork was the development of the program’s technical standards design evaluation document. As the lead for this task, Cawthon was proud of how everyone’s hard work and contributions came together.
The biggest lesson Cawthon has learned while working with NASA is to continue being curious, learning, and growing both personally and professionally.
“NASA is one of the biggest most impressive networks of engineering, science, and space program expertise in the world and to not leverage that experience in mentorship would be a waste,” Cawthon said.
Cawthon pictured with her husband and daughter. Image courtesy of Caroline Cawthon Outside of work, Cawthon enjoys spending time outdoors with her husband and daughter. She and her family also like to be on the road, exploring new places and meeting new people. They enjoy international travel and small weekend adventures like the local zoo and aquarium.
Learn more about NASA’s Commercial Low Earth Orbit Development Program at:
Commercial Space Stations
View the full article
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