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By NASA
Skywatching Home Skywatching The Next Full Moon is the Wolf… Skywatching Home What’s Up Eclipses Explore the Night Sky Night Sky Network More Tips and Guides FAQ 27 Min Read The Next Full Moon is the Wolf Moon
The Moon sets over Homestead National Historic Park in Nebraska. Credits:
National Park Service/Homestead The next full Moon is the Wolf Moon; the Ice or Old Moon; the Moon after Yule; the start of Prayag Kumbh Mela; Shakambhari Purnima; Paush Purnima; the Thiruvathira, Thiruvathirai, or Arudhra Darisanam festival Moon; and Duruthu Poya.
The phases of the Moon for January 2025. NASA/JPL-Caltech The next full Moon will be Monday evening, Jan. 13, 2025, appearing opposite the Sun (in Earth-based longitude) at 5:27 p.m. EST. This will be Tuesday from the South Africa and Eastern European time zones eastward across the remainder of Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia, etc., to the International Date Line in the mid-Pacific. The Moon will appear full for about three days around this time, from Sunday evening (and possibly the last part of Sunday morning) into Wednesday morning. On the night of the full Moon, for most of the continental USA as well as parts of Africa, Canada, and Mexico, the Moon will pass in front of the planet Mars.
The Maine Farmers’ Almanac began publishing Native American names for full Moons in the 1930s. Over time these names have become widely known and used. According to this almanac, as the full Moon in January this is the Wolf Moon, from the packs of wolves heard howling outside the villages amid the cold and deep snows of winter.
European names for this Moon include the Ice Moon, the Old Moon, and (as the full Moon after the winter solstice) the Moon after Yule. Yule was a three to 12-day festival near the winter solstice in pre-Christian Europe. In the tenth century King Haakon I associated Yule with Christmas as part of the Christianization of Norway, and this association spread throughout Europe. The exact timing of this pre-Christian celebration is unclear. Some sources now associate Yule with the 12 days of Christmas, so that the Moon after Yule is after Twelfth Night on January 6. Other sources suggest that Yule is an old name for the month of January, so the Moon after Yule is in February. In the absence of more reliable historic information, I’m going with the full Moon after the winter solstice as the Moon after Yule.
This full Moon corresponds with the start of the 44-day festival Prayag Kumbh Mela, also known as Maha Kumbh. This Hindu pilgrimage and festival is held every 12 years in the Indian city of Prayagraj at the confluence of three rivers, the Ganges, the Yamuna, and the mythical Sarasvati. It is expected to draw around 400 million visitors. Similar Kumbh celebrations are held approximately every 12 years at the convergence of three rivers in three other Indian cities, Nashik (upcoming in 2027), Ujjain (in 2028), and Haridwar (in 2033).
In the Hindu calendar, this full Moon is Shakambhari Purnima, the last day in the 8-day Shakambari Navratri holiday that celebrates the goddess Shakambhari. In the Purnimanta tradition that ends months on the full Moon day, this full Moon is Paush Purnima, the last day of the Hindu month of Paush. The day after Paush Purnima is the start of the month of Magha, a period of austerity. Bathing in the holy waters of India is an important activity for both Shakambari Navratri and Magha.
This full Moon corresponds with the Thiruvathira, Thiruvathirai, or Arudhra Darisanam festival, celebrated by Hindus in the Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
For the Buddhists of Sri Lanka, this is Duruthu Poya, which commemorates Siddhartha Gautama Buddha’s first visit to Sri Lanka.
In many lunar and lunisolar calendars the months change with the new Moon and full Moons fall in the middle of the lunar month. This full Moon is in the middle of the 12th and final month of the Chinese Year of the Rabbit. The new Moon on January 29 will be Chinese New Year, the start of the Year of the Snake. This full Moon is in the middle of Tevet in the Hebrew calendar and Rajab, the seventh month of the Islamic calendar. Rajab is one of the four sacred months in which warfare and fighting are forbidden.
As usual, the wearing of suitably celebratory celestial attire is encouraged in honor of the full Moon. Take care in the cold weather and take advantage of these early sunsets to enjoy and share the wonders of the night sky. And avoid starting any wars.
Here are the other celestial events between now and the full Moon after next, with times and angles based on the location of NASA Headquarters in Washington, D.C.:
As winter continues in the Northern Hemisphere, the daily periods of sunlight continue to lengthen. Our 24-hour clock is based on the average length of a day with the solar days near the solstices longer than those near the equinoxes. For Washington, D.C. and similar latitudes (I’ve not checked for other areas) the latest sunrise of the year (ignoring Daylight Saving Time) occurred on January 4. Monday, January 13 (the day of the full Moon), morning twilight will begin at 6:24 a.m. EST, sunrise will be at 7:26 a.m., solar noon will be at 12:17 p.m. when the Sun will reach its maximum altitude of 29.8 degrees, sunset will be at 5:08 p.m., and evening twilight will end at 6:11 p.m. By Wednesday, February 12 (the day of the full Moon after next), morning twilight will begin at 6:04 a.m., sunrise will be at 7:03 a.m., solar noon will be at 12:23 p.m. when the Sun will reach its maximum altitude of 37.7 degrees, sunset will be at 5:43 p.m., and evening twilight will end at 6:41 p.m.
This should be a good time for planet watching, especially with a backyard telescope. Venus, Jupiter, Mars, Saturn, and Uranus will all be in the evening sky. Brightest will be Venus, appearing in the southwestern sky. With a telescope you should be able to see it shift from half-full to a 29% illuminated crescent during this lunar cycle as it brightens and moves closer to the Earth.
Venus will reach its brightest for the year just after the full Moon after next. Second in brightness will be Jupiter in the eastern sky. With a telescope you should be able to see Jupiter’s four bright moons, Ganymede, Callisto, Europa, and Io, noticeably shifting positions in the course of an evening. Jupiter was at its closest and brightest in early December. Third in brightness will be Mars low in the east-northeastern sky. Mars will be at its closest and brightest for the year a few days after this full Moon. Fourth in brightness will be Saturn, appearing near Venus in the southwestern sky. With a telescope you should be able to see Saturn’s bright moon Titan and maybe its rings. The rings are appearing very thin and will be edge-on to the Earth in March 2025. We won’t get the “classic” view of Saturn showing off its rings until 2026. Saturn was at its closest and brightest in early September and will appear its closest to Venus (2.2 degrees apart) the evening of January 18. Fifth in brightness and technically bright enough to see without a telescope (if you are in a very dark location and your eyesight is better than mine) will be Uranus high in the southeastern sky. Uranus was at its closest and brightest in mid-November.
During this lunar cycle these planets will be rotating westward around the pole star Polaris (with Venus shifting more slowly) making them easier to see earlier in the evening, and friendlier for backyard stargazing, especially if you have young ones with earlier bedtimes.
Comets
As mentioned in my last posting, the sungrazing comet C/2024 G3 (ATLAS) will be passing very near the Sun on January 13. There is a chance that this comet will break up and vanish from view as it approaches the Sun, much as comet C/2024 S1 (ATLAS) did in October. In addition, its visual magnitude might not be bright enough to see in the daytime due to the glow of the nearby Sun. If it does not break up and is bright enough, Northern Hemisphere viewers will have the best viewing near its closest approach. For the Washington, D.C. area, it could be brightest the evening of January 12 before it sets on the southwestern horizon. You will need to find a distant object to block direct sunlight so you can safely look about 5 degrees to the upper right of the Sun. If the horizon is very clear, your best chance might be after sunset at 5:07 p.m. EST, but before the comet sets about 10 minutes later. Southern Hemisphere viewers will have the best viewing after closest approach, immediately after sunset from mid-January on (dimming each evening as it moves away from the Sun and the Earth). You may need binoculars or a telescope to see it, although comets are hard to predict.
Meteor Showers
Two minor meteor showers, the γ-Ursae Minorids (404 GUM) and α-Centaurids (102 ACE), will peak during this lunar cycle. The light of the waning Moon will interfere with the γ-Ursae Minorids peak on January 18. The α-Centaurids, only visible from the Southern Hemisphere, are expected to peak on February 8. In recent years the average peak has been 6 visible meteors per hour (under ideal conditions), although this shower showed bursts of 20 to 30 meteors per hour in 1974 and 1980. The best viewing conditions will likely be after the waxing gibbous Moon sets in the early mornings around the peak.
Evening Sky Highlights
On the evening of Monday, Jan. 13, 2025 (the evening of the full Moon), as twilight ends (at 6:11 p.m. EST), the rising Moon will be 13 degrees above the east-northeastern horizon with the bright planet Mars (the third brightest planet) 2 degrees to the lower left and the bright star Pollux (the brighter of the twin stars in the constellation Gemini, the twins) 3 degrees to the upper left of the Moon. The brightest planet visible will be Venus at 29 degrees above the southwestern horizon, with the planet Saturn (fourth brightest) 6 degrees to the upper left of Venus. The second brightest planet, Jupiter, will be 47 degrees above the eastern horizon. The bright star closest to overhead will be Capella at 50 degrees above the east-northeastern horizon. Capella is the 6th brightest star in our night sky and the brightest star in the constellation Auriga (the charioteer). Although we see Capella as a single star it is actually four stars (two pairs of stars orbiting each other). Capella is about 43 light years from us.
As this lunar cycle progresses, the planets and the background of stars will appear to rotate westward around the pole star Polaris each evening, with Venus initially shifting the other direction. Mars will be at its closest and brightest on January 15. Venus and Saturn will appear closest to each other on January 18. Mars and Pollux will appear nearest each other on January 22 and 23. Venus will appear at its highest above the horizon (as twilight ends) on January 27, after which it will start shifting toward the horizon again. Jupiter and Aldebaran will appear at their closest on January 31. The waxing Moon will pass by Saturn on January 31; Venus on February 1; the Pleiades star cluster on February 5; and Mars and Pollux on February 10.
By the evening of Wednesday, February 12 (the evening of the full Moon after next), as twilight ends (at 6:41 p.m. EST), the rising Moon will be 7 degrees above the east-northeastern horizon with the bright star Regulus 2 degrees to the right. The brightest planet in the sky will be Venus at 28 degrees above the west-southwestern horizon, appearing as a crescent through a telescope. Next in brightness will be Jupiter at 71 degrees above the south-southeastern horizon. Third in brightness will be Mars at 48 degrees above the eastern horizon. Saturn will be 11 degrees above the west-southwestern horizon. Uranus, on the edge of what is visible under extremely clear, dark skies, will be 68 degrees above the south-southwestern horizon. The bright star closest to overhead will still be Capella at 75 degrees above the northeastern horizon.
Also high in the sky will be the constellation Orion, easily identifiable because of the three stars that form Orion’s Belt. This time of year, we see many bright stars in the sky at evening twilight, with bright stars scattered from the south-southeast toward the northwest. We see more stars in this direction because we are looking toward the Local Arm of our home galaxy (also called the Orion Arm, Orion-Cygnus Arm, or Orion Bridge). This arm is about 3,500 light years across and 10,000 light years long. Some of the bright stars we see from this arm are the three stars of Orion’s Belt, as well as Rigel (860 light years from Earth), Betelgeuse (548 light years), Polaris (about 400 light years), and Deneb (about 2,600 light years).
Facing toward the south from the northern hemisphere, to the upper left of Orion’s Belt is the bright star Betelgeuse (be careful not to say this name three times). About the same distance to the lower right is the bright star Rigel. Orion’s belt appears to point down and to the left about seven belt lengths to the bright star Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky. Below Sirius is the bright star Adara. To the upper right of Orion’s Belt (at about the same distance from Orion as Sirius) is the bright star Aldebaran. Nearly overhead is the bright star Capella. To the left (east) of Betelgeuse is the bright star Procyon. The two stars above Procyon are Castor and Pollux, the twin stars of the constellation Gemini (Pollux is the brighter of the two). The bright star Regulus appears farther to the left (east) of Pollux near the eastern horizon. Very few places on the East Coast are dark enough to see the Milky Way (our home galaxy), but if you could see it, it would appear to stretch overhead from the southeast to the northwest. Since we are seeing our galaxy from the inside, the combined light from its 100 billion to 400 billion stars make it appear as a band surrounding the Earth.
Morning Sky Highlights
On the morning of Monday, Jan. 13, 2025 (the morning of the full Moon), as twilight begins (at 6:23 a.m. EST), the setting full Moon will be 11 degrees above the west-northwestern horizon. This will be the last morning the planet Mercury will rise before morning twilight begins, although it will be bright enough to see in the glow of dawn after it rises for another week or so. This will leave Mars at 18 degrees above the west-northwestern horizon as the only planet in the sky. The bright star appearing closest to overhead will be Arcturus at 69 degrees above the south-southeastern horizon. Arcturus is the brightest star in the constellation Boötes (the herdsman or plowman) and the 4th brightest star in our night sky. It is 36.7 light years from us. While it has about the same mass as our Sun, it is about 2.6 billion years older and has used up its core hydrogen, becoming a red giant 25 times the size and 170 times the brightness of our Sun. One way to identify Arcturus in the night sky is to start at the Big Dipper, then follow the arc of the dipper’s handle as it “arcs toward Arcturus.”
As this lunar cycle progresses Mars and the background of stars will appear to rotate westward around the pole star Polaris by about 1 degree each morning. The waning Moon will appear near Mars and Pollux on January 13 and 14, Regulus on January 16, Spica on January 21, Antares on January 24 and 25, and (rising after morning twilight begins) Mercury on January 28. January 22 will be the last morning the planet Mercury will be above the horizon 30 minutes before sunrise. Mars and Pollux will be near their closest to each other the morning of January 23. February 4 will be the last morning the planet Mars will be above the northwestern horizon as morning twilight begins. The waxing Moon will appear near Pollux on February 9 (setting before twilight begins) and 10.
By the morning of Wednesday, February 12 (the morning of the full Moon after next), as twilight begins (at 6:04 a.m. EST), the setting full Moon will be 13 degrees above the western horizon. No planets will appear in the sky. The bright star appearing closest to overhead will still be Arcturus at 65 degrees above the southeastern horizon.
Detailed Daily Guide
Here is a day-by-day listing of celestial events between now and the full Moon on Feb. 12, 2025. The times and angles are based on the location of NASA Headquarters in Washington, D.C., and some of these details may differ for where you are (I use parentheses to indicate times specific to the D.C. area). If your latitude is significantly different than 39 degrees north (and especially for my Southern Hemisphere readers), I recommend using an astronomy app set for your location or a star-watching guide from a local observatory, news outlet, or astronomy club.
Tuesday evening, January 7 At 7:07 p.m. EST, the Moon will be at perigee, its closest to the Earth for this orbit.
Thursday evening, January 9 The waxing gibbous Moon will pass in front of the Pleiades star cluster. This may be viewed best with binoculars, as the brightness of the Moon will make it hard to see the stars in this star cluster. As evening twilight ends at 6:07 p.m. EST, the Pleiades will appear 1 degree to the lower left of the full Moon. Over the next few hours, including as the Moon reaches its highest for the night at 8:37 p.m., the Moon will pass in front of the Pleiades, blocking many of these stars from view. By about midnight the Pleiades will appear about 1 degree below the Moon, and the Moon and the Pleiades will separate as Friday morning progresses.
Also on Thursday night, January 9, the planet Venus will reach its greatest angular separation from the Sun as seen from the Earth for this apparition (called greatest elongation). Because the angle between the line from the Sun to Venus and the line of the horizon changes with the seasons, the date when Venus and the Sun appear farthest apart as seen from Earth is not always the same as when it appears highest above the west-southwestern horizon as evening twilight ends, which occurs on January 27.
Friday evening, January 10 The bright planet Jupiter will appear near the waxing gibbous Moon. As evening twilight ends at 6:08 p.m. EST, Jupiter will be 5 degrees to the lower right. As the Moon reaches its highest for the night at 9:37 p.m., Jupiter will be 6 degrees below the Moon. The pair will continue to separate until Jupiter sets Saturday morning at 4:45 a.m.
Sunday afternoon, January 12 There is a slight chance that the sungrazing comet, C/2024 G3 (ATLAS) might be visible near the setting Sun. Most likely, this comet will not be bright enough to see in the daytime or will break up and vanish from view like comet C/2024 S1 (ATLAS) did in October. The odds are low, but if the sky is clear, find an object to block direct sunlight (the farther away the object the better) so you can safely look about 5 degrees to the upper right of the Sun. If the west-southwestern horizon is clear, your best chance might be after sunset at 5:07 p.m. EST, but before the comet sets about 10 minutes later. This will only be visible from the Northern Hemisphere. Southern Hemisphere viewers may be able to see this comet from mid-January on immediately after sunset (dimming each evening as it moves away from us).
Monday morning, January 13 This is the morning of the full Moon. It will be the last morning Mercury will rise before morning twilight begins, although it will be bright enough to see in the glow of dawn after it rises for another week or so.
The Moon will be full Monday evening at 5:27 p.m. EST. This will be on Tuesday from the South Africa and Eastern European time zones eastward across the rest of Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia, etc., to the International Date Line in the mid-Pacific. The Moon will appear full for about three days around this time, from Sunday evening (and possibly the last part of Sunday morning) into Wednesday morning.
On Monday night the full Moon will appear near and pass in front of the bright planet Mars, with the bright star Pollux above the pair. As evening twilight ends at 6:11 p.m. EST, the three will form a triangle, with Mars 2 degrees to the lower left and Pollux 3 degrees to the upper left of the Moon. For most of the continental USA as well as parts of Africa, Canada, and Mexico, the Moon will pass in front of Mars. Times will vary for other locations, but for NASA Headquarters in Washington, D.C., Mars will vanish behind the bottom of the Moon at about 9:16 p.m. and reappear from behind the upper right of the Moon at about 10:31 p.m. By the time the Moon reaches its highest for the night early on Tuesday morning at 12:37 a.m., Mars will be 1 degree to the right of the Moon and Pollux 5 degrees to the upper right. As morning twilight begins at 6:23 a.m., Mars will be 4 degrees and Pollux 8 degrees to the lower right of the Moon.
Wednesday night January 15 The planet Mars will be at opposition, so called because it will be opposite the Earth from the Sun, effectively a “full” Mars. Near opposition Mars will be at its closest and brightest for the year. On Wednesday night, as evening twilight ends at 6:13 p.m. EST, Mars will be 14 degrees above the east-northeastern horizon. Mars will reach its highest in the sky early Thursday morning at 12:21 a.m., and will be 15 degrees above the west-northwestern horizon as morning twilight begins at 6:23 a.m. Only planets that orbit farther from the Sun than the Earth can be seen at opposition from the Earth.
Wednesday night into Thursday morning, January 15 to 16 The bright star Regulus will appear near the waning gibbous Moon. As Regulus rises on the east-northeastern horizon at 7:52 p.m. EST, it will be more than 8 degrees below the Moon. By the time the Moon reaches its highest for the night on Thursday morning at 2:17 a.m. Regulus will be 5.5 degrees to the lower left of the Moon. As morning twilight begins at 6:23 a.m. Regulus will be 4 degrees to the left of the Moon.
Saturday evening, January 18 Venus and Saturn will appear nearest to each other. As evening twilight ends at 6:15 p.m. EST, Venus will be 30 degrees above the southwestern horizon with Saturn 2.2 degrees to the lower left. Saturn will set first on the western horizon almost 3 hours later at 9:04 p.m.
Monday night, January 20 At 11:53 p.m. EST, the Moon will be at apogee, its farthest from the Earth for this orbit.
Tuesday morning, January 21 The bright star Spica will appear near the waning gibbous Moon. As the Moon rises on the east-southeastern horizon at 12:11 a.m. EST Spica will be 1 degree above the Moon. By the time the Moon reaches its highest for the night at 5:41 a.m., Spica will be 3.5 degrees to the upper right, with morning twilight beginning 40 minutes later at 6:21 a.m. For parts of Western Africa and the Atlantic Ocean the Moon will pass in front of Spica.
Tuesday afternoon, the waning Moon will appear half-full as it reaches its last quarter at 3:31 p.m. EST (when we can’t see it).
Wednesday morning, January 22 This will be the last morning Mercury will be above the horizon 30 minutes before sunrise, an approximation of the last morning it might be visible in the glow of dawn.
Throughout this lunar cycle, Mars and the bright star Pollux will appear near each other, with Wednesday night into Thursday morning and Thursday night into Friday morning (January 22, 23, and 24) the nights when they will be at their closest, 2.5 degrees apart. They will be up all night for both nights, with Mars at its highest on Wednesday night at 11:41 p.m. EST, and Thursday night at 11:36 p.m.
Friday morning, January 24 The bright star Antares will appear to the lower left of the waning crescent Moon. As Antares rises on the southeastern horizon at 3:54 a.m. EST, it will be 8 degrees from the Moon. By the time morning twilight begins less than 2.5 hours later at 6:19 a.m., Antares will be 6.5 degrees from the Moon. For part of the Indian Ocean the Moon will actually pass in front of Pollux.
Saturday morning, January 25 The Moon will have shifted to the other side of Antares. As the Moon rises at 4:20 a.m. EST, Antares will be 6 degrees to the upper right of the Moon. By the time morning twilight begins 2 hours later at 6:19 a.m., Antares will be 7 degrees from the Moon.
Monday evening, January 27 Venus will be at its highest above the west-southwestern horizon (31 degrees) as evening twilight ends at 6:25 p.m. EST, appearing as a 41% illuminated crescent through a telescope.
Wednesday morning, January 29 At 7:36 a.m. EST there will be a new Moon, when the Moon passes between the Earth and the Sun, and the Moon will not be visible from the Earth. The day of, or the day after, the New Moon marks the start of the new month for most lunisolar calendars. The first month of the Chinese calendar starts on Wednesday, January 29, making this Chinese New Year, the start of the Year of the Snake! Chinese New Year and related celebrations throughout much of Asia and in areas with significant Chinese populations celebrate the end of winter and start of spring. Traditional festivities start on the eve of Chinese New Year and continue until the Lantern Festival on the 15th day of the first lunar month.
Sundown on Wednesday, January 29 This marks the start of Shevat in the Hebrew calendar.
Sundown on Thursday, January 30 In the Islamic calendar, the months traditionally start with the first sighting of the waxing crescent Moon. Many Muslim communities now follow the Umm al-Qura Calendar of Saudi Arabia, which uses astronomical calculations to start months in a more predictable way. Using this calendar, sundown on Thursday, January 30, will probably mark the beginning of Shaʿbān, the eighth month of the Islamic year and the month before Ramadan.
Friday evening, January 31 Saturn will appear 4 degrees to the upper left of the waxing crescent Moon. The Moon will be 17 degrees above the west-southwestern horizon as evening twilight ends at 6:29 p.m. EST, and will set on the western horizon 99 minutes later at 8:08 p.m. For part of Asia the Moon will actually pass in front of Saturn.
Throughout this lunar cycle the bright star Aldebaran will appear below the bright planet Jupiter, with Friday, January 31 the evening they appear at their closest, about 5 degrees apart. As evening twilight ends at 6:29 p.m. EST, Jupiter will be 65 degrees above the southeastern horizon with Aldebaran to the lower right. Jupiter will reach its highest for the night, 73 degrees above the southern horizon at 8:01 p.m., with Aldebaran below Jupiter. As Aldebaran sets on the west-northwestern horizon almost 7 hours after that at 2:56 a.m. it will be to the lower left of the Moon.
Saturday evening, February 1 Venus will appear near the waxing crescent Moon. The Moon will be 30 degrees above the west-southwestern horizon as evening twilight ends at 6:30 p.m. EST, with Venus 2.5 degrees to the upper right. Venus will be 2.5 degrees to the lower right as it sets first on the western horizon 2.75 hours later at 9:15 p.m.
Saturday night, at 9:38 p.m. EST, the Moon will be at perigee, its closest to the Earth for this orbit.
Saturday also is Imbolc or Imbolg, and the next day (Sunday, February 2) is Candlemas or Groundhog’s Day. We currently divide the year into four seasons based upon the solstices and equinoxes, with spring starting on the vernal equinox. This approximates winter as the quarter of the year with the coldest temperatures. Much of pre-Christian northern Europe celebrated “cross-quarter days” halfway between the solstices and equinoxes, dividing the seasons on these days. Using this definition, winter was the quarter of the year with the shortest daily periods of daylight, and spring started on Imbolc (the middle of our winter).
The tradition in some European countries was to leave Christmas decorations up until February 1st, the eve of Candlemas, and it was considered bad luck to leave decorations up past this date. Robert Herrick (1591-1674) starts his poem “Ceremonies for Candlemas Eve” with “Down with the rosemary and bays, down with the mistletoe; Instead of holly, now up-raise the greener box (for show).”
We have a tradition in the United States that winter will end on Groundhog Day if the groundhog sees its shadow. If not, winter will last six weeks more (ending around the time of the spring equinox). Groundhog Day appears to tie back to European lore about whether or not badgers, wolves, or bears (instead of groundhogs) see their shadows. Many believe that these Groundhog Day and Candlemas traditions tie back to these earlier celebrations for the start of spring. It seems plausible to me that it was confusing to have two competing dates for the end of winter. Perhaps it was best to let a natural event such as an animal’s shadow decide which definition to use, rather than arguing with your neighbors for the next six weeks.
Tuesday morning, February 4 This will be the last morning Mars will be above the northwestern horizon as morning twilight begins.
Wednesday morning, February 5 The Moon will appear half-full as it reaches its first quarter at 3:02 a.m. EST (when we can’t see it).
Wednesday evening the waxing gibbous Moon will appear near the Pleiades star cluster. As evening twilight ends at 6:34 p.m. EST, this star cluster will be 5 degrees to the upper left of the Moon. The Pleiades will shift closer toward the Moon until the Moon sets on the west-northwestern horizon less than 8 hours later at 2:16 a.m. Some North American locations farther west will actually see the Moon pass in front of some of the stars in the Pleiades.
Sunday morning, February 9 Mars will appear to the upper left of the waxing gibbous Moon. In the early morning at about 2 a.m. EST, Mars will be 8 degrees from the Moon. By the time the Moon sets on the northwestern horizon at 5:58 a.m., Mars will have shifted to 6 degrees from the Moon. For parts of Asia and Northern Europe the Moon will pass in front of Mars.
Also Sunday morning, Mercury will be passing on the far side of the Sun as seen from the Earth, called superior conjunction. Because Mercury orbits inside of the orbit of Earth it will be shifting from the morning sky to the evening sky and will begin emerging from the glow of dusk on the west-southwestern horizon after about February 17 (depending upon viewing conditions).
Sunday evening into Monday morning, February 9 to 10 The waxing gibbous Moon will have shifted to the other side of Mars (having passed in front of Mars in the afternoon when we could not see them). As evening twilight ends at 6:38 p.m. EST, the Moon will be between Mars and the bright star Pollux, with Mars 3 degrees to the upper right and Pollux 3 degrees to the lower left. By the time the Moon reaches its highest for the night at 10:27 p.m., Mars will be 4.5 degrees to the right of the Moon and Pollux 2.5 degrees to the upper left of the Moon. Mars will set first on the northwestern horizon Monday morning at 5:44 a.m. just 22 minutes before morning twilight begins at 6:06 a.m.
Wednesday morning, February 12 The full Moon after next will be at 8:53 a.m. EST, with the bright star Regulus nearby. This will be on Thursday morning from Australian Central Time eastward to the International Date Line in the mid-Pacific. The Moon will appear full for about three days around this time, from Monday night into early Thursday evening.
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By NASA
As 1969, an historic year that saw not just one but two successful human lunar landings, drew to a close, NASA continued preparations for its planned third Moon landing mission, Apollo 13, then scheduled for launch on March 12, 1970. The Apollo 13 prime crew of Commander James A. Lovell, Command Module Pilot (CMP) Thomas K. “Ken” Mattingly, and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) Fred W. Haise, and their backups John W. Young, John L. “Jack” Swigert, and Charles M. Duke, continued intensive training for the mission. NASA announced the selection of the Fra Mauro region of the Moon as the prime landing site for Apollo 13, favored by geologists because it forms an extensive geologic unit around Mare Imbrium, the largest lava plain on the Moon. The Apollo 13 Saturn V rolled out to its launch pad.
Apollo 11
The Apollo 11 astronauts meet Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, left, on Parliament Hill in Ottawa. Image courtesy of The Canadian Press. The Apollo 11 astronauts meet with Québec premier ministre Jean Lesage in Montréal. Image courtesy of Archives de la Ville de Montreal. Apollo 11 astronauts Neil A. Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin E. “Buzz” Aldrinhad returned from their Giantstep Presidential goodwill tour on Nov. 5, 1969. Due to scheduling conflicts, a visit to Canada could not be included in the same time frame as the rest of the tour, so the astronauts made a special trip to Ottawa and Montreal on Dec. 2 and 3, meeting with local officials.
Apollo 11 astronaut Neil A. Armstrong, left, and comedian Bob Hope perform for the troops in Korat, Thailand. Armstrong, in blue flight suit, shakes hands with servicemen in Long Binh, South Vietnam. Armstrong, left, and Hope entertain the crowd in Cu Chi, South Vietnam. Armstrong joined famed comedian Bob Hope’s USO Christmas tour in December 1969. He participated in several shows at venues in South Vietnam, Thailand, and Guam, kidding around with Hope and answering questions from the assembled service members. He received standing ovations and spent much time shaking hands with the troops. The USO troupe also visited the hospital ship U.S.S. Sanctuary (AH-17) stationed in the South China Sea.
Apollo 12
For the first time in nearly four weeks, on Dec. 10, Apollo 12 astronauts Charles “Pete” Conrad, Richard F. Gordon, and Alan L. Bean stepped out into sunshine and breathed unfiltered air. Since their launch on Nov. 14, 1969, the trio had traveled inside their spacecraft for 10 days on their mission to the Moon and back, wore respirators during their recovery in the Pacific Ocean, stayed in the Mobile Quarantine Facility during the trip from the prime recovery ship U.S.S. Hornet back to Houston, and lived in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory (LRL) at the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC), now NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston. Like the Apollo 11 crew before them, Conrad, Gordon, and Bean exhibited no symptoms of any infections with lunar microorganisms and managers declared them fit to be released from quarantine. MSC Director Robert L. Gilruth, other managers, and a crowd of well-wishers greeted Conrad, Gordon, and Bean.
Director of the Manned Spacecraft Center, now NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston, Robert R. Gilruth and others greet Apollo 12 astronaut Charles “Pete” Conrad as he emerges from his postflight quarantine. Director of the Manned Spacecraft Center, now NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston, Robert R. Gilruth and others greet Apollo 12 astronaut Richard F. Gordon as he emerges from his postflight quarantine. Director of the Manned Spacecraft Center, now NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston, Robert R. Gilruth and others greet Apollo 12 astronaut Alan L. Bean as he emerges from his postflight quarantine. Addressing the crowd gathered outside the LRL, Conrad commented that “the LRL was really quite pleasant,” but all three were glad to be breathing non man-made air! While the men went home to their families for a short rest, work inside the LRL continued. Scientists began examining the first of the 75 pounds of rocks returned by the astronauts as well as the camera and other hardware they removed from Surveyor 3 for effects of 31 months exposed to the harsh lunar environment. Preliminary analysis of the TV camera that failed early during their first spacewalk on the lunar surface indicated that the failure was due to partial burnout of the Videocon tube, likely caused by the crew accidentally pointing the camera toward the Sun. Other scientists busied themselves with analyzing the data returning from the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package (ALSEP) instruments Conrad and Bean deployed on the lunar surface. Mission planners examining the photographs taken from lunar orbit of the Fra Mauro area were confident that the next mission, Apollo 13, would be able to make a safe landing in that geologically interesting site, the first attempt to land in the lunar highlands.
After taking their first steps in the sunshine, Apollo 12 astronauts Charles “Pete” Conrad, left, Alan L. Bean, and Richard F. Gordon address a large group of well-wishers outside the Lunar Receiving Laboratory. Bean, left, Gordon, and Conrad during their postflight press conference. Two days after leaving the LRL, Conrad, Gordon, and Bean held their postflight press conference in the MSC auditorium. Addressing the assembled reporters, the astronauts first introduced their wives as their “number one support team,” then provided a film and photo summary of their mission, and answered numerous questions. Among other things, the astronauts praised the spacesuits they wore during the Moon walks, indicating they worked very well and, looking ahead, saw no impediments to longer excursions on future missions. Their only concern centered around the ever-present lunar dust that clung to their suits, raising that as a potential issue for future lunar explorers.
Director of NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida Kurt H. Debus, right, presents Apollo 12 astronauts Charles “Pete” Conrad, left, Richard F. Gordon, and Alan L. Bean with photos of their launch. White House of the Apollo 12 astronauts and their wives with President Richard M. Nixon, First Lady Pat Nixon, and their daughter Tricia Nixon. Conrad, Gordon, and Bean returned to NASA’s Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida on Dec. 17, where their mission began more than a month earlier and nearly ended prematurely when lightning twice struck their Saturn V rocket. KSC Director Kurt H. Debus presented each astronaut with a framed photograph of their launch in front of 8,000 workers assembled in the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB). Of their nearly ill-fated liftoff Conrad expressed his signature confidence, “Had we to do it again, I would launch exactly under the same conditions.” Guenter Wendt and his pad closeout team had collected a piece of grounding rod from the umbilical tower, cut it into three short pieces, mounted them with the inscription “In fond memory of the electrifying launch of Apollo 12,” and presented them to the astronauts. Three days later, President Richard M. Nixon and First Lady Pat Nixon welcomed Conrad, Gordon, and Bean and their wives Jane, Barbara, and Sue, respectively, to a dinner at the White House. After dinner, they watched a film about the Apollo 12 mission as well as the recently released motion picture Marooned about three astronauts stranded in space. President Nixon requested that the astronauts pay a visit to former President Lyndon B. Johnson, who for many years championed America’s space program, and brief him on their mission, which they did in January 1970.
The Alan Bean Day parade in Fort Worth. Apollo 12 astronaut Bean and his family deluged by shredded office paper during the parade in his honor in Fort Worth. Image credits: courtesy Fort Worth Star Telegram. On Dec. 22, the city of Fort Worth, Texas, honored native son Bean, with Conrad, Gordon, and their families joining him for the Alan Bean Day festivities. An estimated 150,000 people lined the streets of the city to welcome Bean and his crewmates, dumping a blizzard of ticker tape and shredded office paper on the astronauts and their families during the parade. City workers cleared an estimated 60 tons of paper from the streets after the event.
Apollo 13
The planned Apollo 13 landing site in the Fra Mauro region, in relation to the Apollo 11 and 12 landing sites. Workers place the Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter over the Apollo 13 Lunar Module. On Dec. 10, 1969, NASA announced the selection of the Fra Mauro region of the Moon as the prime landing site for Apollo 13, located about 110 miles east of the Apollo 12 touchdown point. Geologists favored the Fra Mauro area for exploration because it forms an extensive geologic unit around Mare Imbrium, the largest lava plain on the Moon. Unlike the Apollo 11 and 12 sites located in the flat lunar maria, Fra Mauro rests in the relatively more rugged lunar highlands. The precision landing by the Apollo 12 crew and their extensive orbital photography of the Fra Mauro region gave NASA confidence to attempt a landing at Fra Mauro. Workers in KSC’s VAB had stacked the three stages of Apollo 13’s Saturn V in June and July 1969. On Dec. 10, they topped the rocket with the Apollo 13 spacecraft, comprising the Command and Service Modules (CSM) and the Lunar Module (LM) inside the Spacecraft LM Adapter. Five days later, the Saturn V exited the VAB and made the 3.5-mile journey out to Launch Pad 39A to begin a series of tests to prepare it for the launch of the planned 10-day lunar mission. During their 33.5 hours on the Moon’s surface, Lovell and Haise planned to conduct two four-hour spacewalks to set up the ALSEP, a suite of five investigations designed to collect data about the lunar environment after the astronauts’ departure, and to conduct geologic explorations of the landing site. Mattingly planned to remain in the CSM, conducting geologic observations from lunar orbit including photographing potential future landing sites.
Apollo 13 astronaut James A. Lovell trains on the deployment of the S-band antenna. Apollo 13 astronaut Fred W. Haise examines one of the lunar surface instruments. During the first of the two spacewalks, Apollo 13 Moon walkers Lovell and Haise planned to deploy the five ALSEP experiments, comprising:
Charged Particle Lunar Environment Experiment (CPLEE) – flying for the first time, this experiment sought to measure the particle energies of protons and electrons reaching the lunar surface from the Sun. Lunar Atmosphere Detector (LAD) – this experiment used a Cold Cathode Ion Gauge (CCIG) to measure the pressure of the tenuous lunar atmosphere. Lunar Heat Flow Experiment (LHE) – designed to measure the steady-state heat flow from the Moon’s interior. Passive Seismic Experiment (PSE) – similar to the device left on the Moon during Apollo 12, consisted of a sensitive seismometer to record Moon quakes and other seismic activity. Lunar Dust Detector (LDD) – measured the amount of dust deposited on the lunar surface. A Central Station provided command and communications to the ALSEP experiments, while a Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator using heat from the radioactive decay of a Plutonium-238 sample provided uninterrupted power. Additionally, the astronauts planned to deploy and retrieve the Solar Wind Collector experiment to collect particles of the solar wind, as did the Apollo 11 and 12 crews before them. Apollo 13 astronauts James A. Lovell and Fred W. Haise during the geology field trip to lava fields on the Big Island of Hawaii. Apollo 13 astronauts James A. Lovell and Fred W. Haise during the geology field trip to lava fields on the Big Island of Hawaii. Apollo 13 astronauts James A. Lovell and Fred W. Haise during the geology field trip to lava fields on the Big Island of Hawaii. Apollo 13 astronauts Lovell, Haise, Young, and Duke participated in a geology training field trip between Dec. 17 and 20 on the Big Island of Hawaii. Geologist Patrick D. Crosland of the National Park Service in Hawaii provided the astronauts with a tour of recent volcanic eruption sites in the Kilauea area, with the thought that the Fra Mauro formation might be of volcanic origin. During several traverses in the Kilauea Volcano area, NASA geologists John W. Dietrich, Uel S. Clanton, and Gary E. Lofgren and US Geological Survey geologists Gordon A. “Gordie” Swann, M.H. “Tim” Hait, and Leon T. “Lee” Silver accompanied the astronauts. The training sessions honed the astronauts’ geology skills and refined procedures for collecting rock samples and for documentary photography.
Apollo 14
The Apollo 14 Command and Service Modules shortly after arriving in the Manned Spacecraft Operations Building (MSOB) at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The Apollo 14 Lunar Module ascent stage shortly after arriving in the MSOB. S69-62154 001 Preparations for the fourth Moon landing mission, Apollo 14, continued as well. At the time tentatively planned for launch in July 1970, mission planners considered the Littrow area on the eastern edge of the Mare Serenitatis, characterized by dark material possibly of volcanic origin, as a potential landing site. Apollo 14 astronauts Commander Alan B. Shepard, CMP Stuart A. Roosa, and LMP Edgar D. Mitchell and their backups Eugene A. Cernan, Ronald E. Evans, and Joe H. Engle had already begun training for their mission. At KSC’s Manned Spacecraft Operations Building (MSOB), the Apollo 14 CSM arrived from its manufacturer North American Rockwell in Downey, California, as did the two stages of the LM from the Grumman Aerospace and Engineering Company in Bethpage, New York, in November 1969. Engineers began tests of the spacecraft shortly after their arrival. The three stages of the Apollo 14 Saturn V were scheduled to arrive at KSC in January 1970.
To be continued …
News from around the world in December 1969:
December 2 – Boeing’s new 747 Jumbo Jet makes its first passenger flight, from Seattle to New York.
December 3 – George M. Low sworn in as NASA deputy administrator.
December 4 – A Boy Named Charlie Brown, the first feature film based on the Peanuts comic strip, is released to theaters for the first time.
December 7 – The animated Christmas special Frosty the Snowman, makes its television debut.
December 14 – The Jackson 5 make their first appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show.
December 18 – The sixth James Bond film, On Her Majesty’s Secret Service, held its world premiere in London, with George Lazenby as Agent 007.
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By NASA
A rendering of Firefly’s Blue Ghost lunar lander and a rover developed for the company’s third mission to the Moon as part of NASA’s CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Services) initiative.Credit: Firefly Aerospace NASA continues to advance its campaign to explore more of the Moon than ever before, awarding Firefly Aerospace $179 million to deliver six experiments to the lunar surface. This fourth task order for Firefly will target landing in the Gruithuisen Domes on the near side of the Moon in 2028.
As part of the agency’s broader Artemis campaign, Firefly will deliver a group of science experiments and technology demonstrations under NASA’s CLPS initiative, or Commercial Lunar Payload Services, to these lunar domes, an area of ancient lava flows, to better understand planetary processes and evolution. Through CLPS, NASA is furthering our understanding of the Moon’s environment and helping prepare for future human missions to the lunar surface, as part of the agency’s Moon to Mars exploration approach.
“The CLPS initiative carries out U.S. scientific and technical studies on the surface of the Moon by robot explorers. As NASA prepares for future human exploration of the Moon, the CLPS initiative continues to support a growing lunar economy with American companies,” said Joel Kearns, deputy associate administrator for exploration, Science Mission Directorate, NASA Headquarters in Washington. “Understanding the formation of the Gruithuisen Domes, as well as the ancient lava flows surrounding the landing site, will help the U.S. answer important questions about the lunar surface.”
Firefly’s first lunar delivery is scheduled to launch no earlier than mid-January 2025 and will land near a volcanic feature called Mons Latreille within Mare Crisium, on the northeast quadrant of the Moon’s near side. Firefly’s second lunar mission includes two task orders: a lunar orbit drop-off of a satellite combined with a delivery to the lunar surface on the far side and a delivery of a lunar orbital calibration source, scheduled in 2026.
This new delivery in 2028 will send payloads to the Gruithuisen Domes and the nearby Sinus Viscositatus. The Gruithuisen Domes have long been suspected to be formed by a magma rich in silica, similar in composition to granite. Granitic rocks form easily on Earth due to plate tectonics and oceans of water. The Moon lacks these key ingredients, so lunar scientists have been left to wonder how these domes formed and evolved over time. For the first time, as part of this task order, NASA also has contracted to provide “mobility,” or roving, for some of the scientific instruments on the lunar surface after landing. This will enable new types of U.S. scientific investigations from CLPS.
“Firefly will deliver six instruments to understand the landing site and surrounding vicinity,” said Chris Culbert, manager of the CLPS initiative at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston. “These instruments will study geologic processes and lunar regolith, test solar cells, and characterize the neutron radiation environment, supplying invaluable information as NASA works to establish a long-term presence on the Moon.”
The instruments, collectively expected to be about 215 pounds (97 kilograms) in mass, include:
Lunar Vulkan Imaging and Spectroscopy Explorer, which consists of two stationary and three mobile instruments, will study rocks and regoliths on the summit of one of the domes to determine their origin and better understand geologic processes of early planetary bodies. The principal investigator is Dr. Kerri Donaldson Hanna of the University of Central Florida, Orlando. Heimdall is a flexible camera system that will be used to take pictures of the landing site from above the horizon to the ground directly below the lander. The principal investigator is Dr. R. Aileen Yingst of the Planetary Science Institute, Tucson, Arizona. Sample Acquisition, Morphology Filtering, and Probing of Lunar Regolith is a robotic arm that will collect samples of lunar regolith and use a robotic scoop to filter and isolate particles of different sizes. The sampling technology will use a flight spare from the Mars Exploration Rover project. The principal investigator is Sean Dougherty of Maxar Technologies, Westminster, Colorado. Low-frequency Radio Observations from the Near Side Lunar Surface is designed to observe the Moon’s surface environment in radio frequencies, to determine whether natural and human-generated activity near the surface interferes with science. The project is headed up by Natchimuthuk Gopalswamy of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. Photovoltaic Investigation on the Lunar Surface will carry a set of the latest solar cells for a technology demonstration of light-to-electricity power conversion for future missions. The experiment will also collect data on the electrical charging environment of the lunar surface using a small array of solar cells. The principal investigator is Jeremiah McNatt from NASA’s Glenn Research Center in Cleveland. Neutron Measurements at the Lunar Surface is a neutron spectrometer that will characterize the surface neutron radiation environment, monitor hydrogen, and provide constraints on elemental composition. The principal investigator is Dr. Heidi Haviland of NASA’s Marshall Spaceflight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. Through the CLPS initiative, NASA purchases lunar landing and surface operations services from American companies. The agency uses CLPS to send scientific instruments and technology demonstrations to advance capabilities for science, exploration, or commercial development of the Moon. By supporting a robust cadence of lunar deliveries, NASA will continue to enable a growing lunar economy while leveraging the entrepreneurial innovation of the commercial space industry. Two upcoming CLPS flights scheduled to launch in early 2025 will deliver NASA payloads to the Moon’s near side and south polar region, respectively.
Learn more about CLPS and Artemis at:
https://www.nasa.gov/clps
-end-
Alise Fisher
Headquarters, Washington
202-358-2546
alise.m.fisher@nasa.gov
Natalia Riusech / Nilufar Ramji
Johnson Space Center, Houston
281-483-5111
natalia.s.riusech@nasa.gov / nilufar.ramji@nasa.gov
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Last Updated Dec 18, 2024 LocationNASA Headquarters Related Terms
Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) Artemis View the full article
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By NASA
3 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
LISTER (Lunar Instrumentation for Subsurface Thermal Exploration with Rapidity) is one of 10 payloads flying aboard the next delivery for NASA’s CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Services) initiative. The instrument is equipped with a drilling system and thermal probe designed to dig into the lunar surface. Photo courtesy: Firefly Aerospace Earth’s nearest neighboring body in the solar system is its Moon, yet to date humans have physically explored just 5% of its surface. It wasn’t until 2023 – building on Apollo-era data and more detailed studies made in 2011-2012 by NASA’s automated GRAIL (Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory) mission – that researchers conclusively determined that the Moon has a liquid outer core surrounding a solid inner core.
As NASA and its industry partners plan for continued exploration of the Moon under Artemis in preparation for future long-duration missions to Mars, improving our understanding of Earth’s 4.5-billion-year-old Moon will help teams of researchers and astronauts find the safest ways to study and live and work on the lunar surface.
That improved understanding is the primary goal of a state-of-the-art science instrument called LISTER (Lunar Instrumentation for Subsurface Thermal Exploration with Rapidity), one of 10 NASA payloads flying aboard the next delivery for the agency’s CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Services) initiative and set to be carried to the surface by Firefly Aerospace’s Blue Ghost 1 lunar lander.
Developed jointly by Texas Tech University in Lubbock and Honeybee Robotics of Altadena, California, LISTER will measure the flow of heat from the Moon’s interior. Its sophisticated pneumatic drill will penetrate to a depth of three meters into the dusty lunar regolith. Every half-meter it descends, the drilling system will pause and extend a custom-built thermal probe into the lunar regolith. LISTER will measure two different aspects of heat flow: thermal gradient, or the changes in temperature at various depths, and thermal conductivity, or the subsurface material’s ability to let heat pass through it.
“By making similar measurements at multiple locations on the lunar surface, we can reconstruct the thermal evolution of the Moon,” said Dr. Seiichi Nagihara, principal investigator for the mission and a geophysics professor at Texas Tech. “That will permit scientists to retrace the geological processes that shaped the Moon from its start as a ball of molten rock, which gradually cooled off by releasing its internal heat into space.”
Demonstrating the drill’s effectiveness could lead to more innovative drilling capabilities, enabling future exploration of the Moon, Mars, and other celestial bodies.. The science collected by LISTER aims to contribute to our knowledge of lunar geology, improving our ability to establish a long-term presence on the Moon under the Artemis campaign.
Under the CLPS model, NASA is investing in commercial delivery services to the Moon to enable industry growth and support long-term lunar exploration. As a primary customer for CLPS deliveries, NASA aims to be one of many customers on future flights. NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, manages the development of seven of the 10 CLPS payloads carried on Firefly’s Blue Ghost lunar lander.
Learn more about CLPS and Artemis at:
https://www.nasa.gov/clps
Alise Fisher
Headquarters, Washington
202-358-2546
Alise.m.fisher@nasa.gov
Corinne Beckinger
Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala.
256-544-0034
corinne.m.beckinger@nasa.gov
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Last Updated Dec 18, 2024 EditorBeth RidgewayContactCorinne M. Beckingercorinne.m.beckinger@nasa.govLocationMarshall Space Flight Center Related Terms
Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) Artemis Marshall Space Flight Center Explore More
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