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Knights Templar and their secret quest for ancient technology
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By NASA
X-ray: NASA/CXC/Technion/N. Keshet et al.; Illustration: NASA/CXC/SAO/M. Weiss People often think about archaeology happening deep in jungles or inside ancient pyramids. However, a team of astronomers has shown that they can use stars and the remains they leave behind to conduct a special kind of archaeology in space.
Mining data from NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory, the team of astronomers studied the relics that one star left behind after it exploded. This “supernova archaeology” uncovered important clues about a star that self-destructed – probably more than a million years ago.
Today, the system called GRO J1655-40 contains a black hole with nearly seven times the mass of the Sun and a star with about half as much mass. However, this was not always the case.
Originally GRO J1655-40 had two shining stars. The more massive of the two stars, however, burned through all of its nuclear fuel and then exploded in what astronomers call a supernova. The debris from the destroyed star then rained onto the companion star in orbit around it, as shown in the artist’s concept.
This artist’s impression shows the effects of the collapse and supernova explosion of a massive star. A black hole (right) was formed in the collapse and debris from the supernova explosion is raining down onto a companion star (left), polluting its atmosphere.CXC/SAO/M. Weiss With its outer layers expelled, including some striking its neighbor, the rest of the exploded star collapsed onto itself and formed the black hole that exists today. The separation between the black hole and its companion would have shrunk over time because of energy being lost from the system, mainly through the production of gravitational waves. When the separation became small enough, the black hole, with its strong gravitational pull, began pulling matter from its companion, wrenching back some of the material its exploded parent star originally deposited.
While most of this material sank into the black hole, a small amount of it fell into a disk that orbits around the black hole. Through the effects of powerful magnetic fields and friction in the disk, material is being sent out into interstellar space in the form of powerful winds.
This is where the X-ray archaeological hunt enters the story. Astronomers used Chandra to observe the GRO J1655-40 system in 2005 when it was particularly bright in X-rays. Chandra detected signatures of individual elements found in the black hole’s winds by getting detailed spectra – giving X-ray brightness at different wavelengths – embedded in the X-ray light. Some of these elements are highlighted in the spectrum shown in the inset.
The team of astronomers digging through the Chandra data were able to reconstruct key physical characteristics of the star that exploded from the clues imprinted in the X-ray light by comparing the spectra with computer models of stars that explode as supernovae. They discovered that, based on the amounts of 18 different elements in the wind, the long-gone star destroyed in the supernova was about 25 times the mass of the Sun, and was much richer in elements heavier than helium in comparison with the Sun.
This analysis paves the way for more supernova archaeology studies using other outbursts of double star systems.
A paper describing these results titled “Supernova Archaeology with X-Ray Binary Winds: The Case of GRO J1655−40” was published in The Astrophysical Journal in May 2024. The authors of this study are Noa Keshet (Technion — Israel Institute of Technology), Ehud Behar (Technion), and Timothy Kallman (NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center).
NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, manages the Chandra program. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory’s Chandra X-ray Center controls science operations from Cambridge, Massachusetts, and flight operations from Burlington, Massachusetts.
Read more from NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory.
Learn more about the Chandra X-ray Observatory and its mission here:
https://www.nasa.gov/chandra
https://chandra.si.edu
Visual Description
This release features an artist’s rendering of a supernova explosion, inset with a spectrum graph.
The artist’s illustration features a star and a black hole in a system called GRO J1655-40. Here, the black hole is represented by a black sphere to our upper right of center. The star is represented by a bright yellow sphere to our lower left of center. In this illustration, the artist captures the immensely powerful supernova as a black hole is created from the collapse of a massive star, with an intense burst of blurred beams radiating from the black sphere. The blurred beams of red, orange, and yellow light show debris from the supernova streaking across the entire image in rippling waves. These beams rain debris on the bright yellow star.
When astronomers used the Chandra X-ray Observatory to observe the system in 2005, they detected signatures of individual elements embedded in the X-ray light. Some of those elements are highlighted in the spectrum graph shown in the inset, positioned at our upper lefthand corner.
The graph’s vertical axis, on our left, indicates X-ray brightness from 0.0 up to 0.7 in intensity units. The horizontal axis, at the bottom of the graph, indicates Wavelength from 6 to 12 in units of Angstroms. On the graph, a tight zigzagging line begins near the top of the vertical axis, and slopes down toward the far end of the horizontal axis. The sharp dips show wavelengths where the light has been absorbed by different elements, decreasing the X-ray brightness. Some of the elements causing these dips have been labeled, including Silicon, Magnesium, Iron, Nickel, Neon, and Cobalt.
News Media Contact
Megan Watzke
Chandra X-ray Center
Cambridge, Mass.
617-496-7998
mwatzke@cfa.harvard.edu
Lane Figueroa
Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama
256-544-0034
lane.e.figueroa@nasa.gov
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By NASA
2 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
The Double Asteroid Redirection Test required extreme precision in mission planning to achieve its mission of impacting an asteroid. The founders of Continuum Space worked on astrodynamics relating to this mission, which they used to inform their product.NASA Planning space missions is a very involved process, ensuring orbits are lined up and spacecraft have enough fuel is imperative to the long-term survival of orbital assets. Continuum Space Systems Inc. of Pasadena, California, produces a cloud-based platform that gives mission planners everything they need to certify that their space resources can accomplish their goals.
Continuum’s story begins at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California. Loic Chappaz, the company’s co-founder, started at JPL as an intern working on astrodynamics related to NASA’s Double Asteroid Redirection Test. There he met Leon Alkalai, a JPL technical fellow who spent his 30-year career at the center planning deep space missions. After Alkalai retired from NASA, he founded Mandala Space Ventures, a startup that explored several avenues of commercial space development. Chappaz soon became Mandala’s first employee, but to plan their future, Mandala’s leadership began thinking about the act of planning itself.
Because the staff had decades of combined experience at JPL, they knew the center had the building blocks for the software they needed. After licensing several pieces of software from JPL, the company began building planning systems that were highly adaptable to any space mission they could come up with. Mandala eventually evolved into a venture firm that incubated space-related startups. However, because Mandala had invested considerably in developing mission-planning tools, further development could be performed by a new company, and Continuum was fully spun off from Mandala in 2021.
Continuum’s platform includes several features for mission planners, such as plotting orbital maneuvers and risk management evaluations. Some of these are built upon software licensed from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.Continuum Space Systems Inc. Continuum’s tools are designed to take a space mission from concept to completion. There are three different components to their “mission in a box” — design, build and test, and mission operations. The base of these tools are several pieces of software developed at NASA. As of 2024, several space startups have begun planning missions with Continuum’s NASA-inspired software, as well as established operators of satellite constellations. From Continuum to several startups, NASA technologies continue to prove a valuable foundation for the nation’s space economy.
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Last Updated Mar 25, 2025 Related Terms
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By NASA
As part of NASA’s Advanced Capabilities for Emergency Response Operations flight tests in November 2024, Overwatch Aero flies a vertical takeoff and landing aircraft in Watsonville, California.Credit: NASA NASA will conduct a live flight test of aircraft performing simulated wildland fire response operations using a newly developed airspace management system at 9 a.m. PDT on Tuesday, March 25, in Salinas, California.
NASA’s new portable airspace management system, part of the agency’s Advanced Capabilities for Emergency Response Operations (ACERO) project, aims to significantly expand the window of time crews have to respond to wildland fires. The system provides the air traffic awareness needed to safely send aircraft – including drones and remotely piloted helicopters – into wildland fire operations, even during low-visibility conditions. Current aerial firefighting operations are limited to times when pilots have clear visibility, which lowers the risk of flying into the surrounding terrain or colliding with other aircraft. This restriction grounds most aircraft at night and during periods of heavy smoke.
During this inaugural flight test, researchers will use the airspace management system to coordinate the flight operations of two small drones, an electric vertical takeoff and landing aircraft, and a remotely piloted aircraft that will have a backup pilot aboard. The drones and aircraft will execute examples of critical tasks for wildland fire management, including weather data sharing, simulated aerial ignition flights, and communications relay.
Media interested in viewing the ACERO flight testing must RSVP by 4 p.m. Friday, March 21, to the NASA Ames Office of Communications by email at: arc-dl-newsroom@mail.nasa.gov or by phone at 650-604-4789. NASA will release additional details, including address and arrival logistics, to media credentialed for the event. A copy of NASA’s media accreditation policy is online.
NASA’s ACERO researchers will use data from the flight test to refine the airspace management system. The project aims to eventually provide this technology to wildland fire crews for use in the field, helping to save lives and property. This project is managed at NASA’s Ames Research Center in California’s Silicon Valley.
For more information on ACERO, visit:
https://go.nasa.gov/4bYEzsD
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Rob Margetta
Headquarters, Washington
202-358-1600
robert.j.margetta@nasa.gov
Hillary Smith
Ames Research Center, Silicon Valley
650-604-4789
hillary.smith@nasa.gov
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Last Updated Mar 18, 2025 EditorJessica TaveauLocationNASA Headquarters Related Terms
Ames Research Center Advanced Capabilities for Emergency Response Operations Aeronautics Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate Flight Innovation View the full article
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By Space Force
The Department of the Air Force announced effective immediately, administrative leave, travel, and transportation reimbursement for elective abortion will cease.
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By NASA
A chevron nozzle is installed on NASA’s Learjet for a mid-March 2001 flight test at Lorain Country Airport to verify that in an emergency, the aircraft could be flown using only the experimental engine. Credit: NASA/Marvin Smith
Shortly after dawn on March 27, 2001, NASA pilot Bill Rieke took off from an airfield just outside of Phoenix in NASA’s blue-and-white Learjet 25 and flew low over a series of microphones for the first flight test of a groundbreaking NASA technology.
On one of the plane’s engines was an experimental jagged-edged nozzle that researchers at Glenn Research Center in Cleveland had discovered made aircraft significantly quieter. These initial flight tests were an important step toward using these “chevron nozzles” on modern aircraft, lowering noise levels for communities.
NASA Glenn has been exploring ways of reducing engine noise since the first jet airliners appeared in the 1950s. New turbofan engines in the 1960s were quieter, but the expansion of the overall airline industry meant that noise was still an issue. With the introduction of noise-limiting mandates in the 1970s, NASA and engine manufacturers embarked on a decades-long search for technologies to lower noise levels.
NASA researchers discovered that the military’s use of rectangular notches, or tabs, along an engine nozzle’s exit – to help disguise a jet fighter’s infrared signature – could also reduce engine noise by helping mix the hot air from the engine core and the cooler air blowing through the engine fan. In the 1990s, Glenn researcher Dennis Huff and his colleagues discovered that a serrated, or sawtooth, shape, referred to as a chevron, offered more promise.
Dennis Huff explains chevron nozzles, seen on a table, to U.S. Senator George Voinovich and other visitors inside the Aero-Acoustic Propulsion Laboratory facility in 2006. Huff was head of NASA Glenn Research Center’s Acoustics Branch at this point.Credit: NASA/Marvin Smith NASA contracted with General Electric and Pratt & Whitney to develop an array of tab and chevron designs to be analyzed in Glenn’s unique Aero-Acoustic Propulsion Laboratory (AAPL). Extensive testing in the spring of 1997 showed the possibilities for reducing noise with these types of nozzles.
Engine manufacturers were impressed with the findings but wary of any technology that might impact performance. So, in 1998, NASA funded engine tests of the 14 most promising designs. The tests revealed the chevron nozzle had a negligible 0.25% reduction of thrust. It was a major development for jet noise research.
In September 2000, Glenn’s Flight Operations Branch was contacted about the logistics of flight-testing chevron nozzles on the center’s Learjet 25 to verify the ground tests and improve computer modeling. Nothing further came of the request, however, until early the next year when Huff informed Rieke, chief of Flight Operations, that the researchers would like to conduct flight tests in late March—with just eight weeks to prepare.
Glenn’s Acoustics Branch worked with colleagues at NASA’s Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia, and the Arizona-based engine manufacturer Honeywell on the effort. They planned to conduct testing at Estrella Sailport just outside of Phoenix from March 26 to 28, 2001.
Bill Rieke and Ellen Tom with the chevron nozzle installed on the Learjet. NASA Glenn Research Center’s small Flight Operations team was heavily involved with icing research and solar cell calibration flights during this period, so arrangements were made for Tom, a Federal Aviation Administration pilot, to assist with the chevron flights. Credit: Courtesy of Bill Rieke With the required safety and design reviews, the eight-week target date would be difficult to meet for any test flight, but this one was particularly challenging as it involved modifications to the engine nacelle. While the special nozzle engineers created for the flights would allow them to switch between a six- and a 12-chevron design during testing, it also got hot quickly. This necessitated the installation of new sensors, rewiring of fire alarm cables, and the presence of an onboard test engineer to monitor the temperatures. The short turnaround also required expedited efforts to obtain flight plan approvals, verify the plane’s airworthiness, and perform normal maintenance activities.
Despite the challenges, Rieke and a small team delivered the Learjet to Estrella on March 25, as planned. The next day was spent coordinating with the large Langley and Honeywell team and acquiring baseline noise data. The pilots idled the unmodified engine as the Learjet flew over three perpendicular rows of microphones at an altitude of 500 feet and speed of 230 miles per hour.
View from below as NASA Glenn Research Center’s Learjet 25 passes overhead at the Estrella airfield with the experimental chevron nozzle visible on the left wing.Credit: Courtesy of Bill Rieke The flight patterns were repeated over the next two days while alternately using the two variations of the chevron nozzle. The researchers anecdotally reported that there was no perceptible noise reduction as the aircraft approached, but significant reductions once it passed. Recordings supported these observations and showed that sideline noise was reduced, as well.
The flights of the Learjet, which was powered by a variation of GE’s J-85 turbojet, were complemented by Honeywell’s turbofan-powered Falcon 20 aircraft. These flights ultimately confirmed the noise reduction found in earlier AAPL tests.
Overall, the flight tests were so successful that just over a year later the FAA began certifying GE’s CF34–8, the first commercial aircraft engine to incorporate chevron technology. The engine was first flown on a Bombardier CRJ900 in 2003. Continued studies by both NASA and industry led to the improved designs and the incorporation of chevrons into larger engines, such as GE’s GEnx.
According to Huff, the chevron’s three-decibel noise decrease was analogous to the difference between running two lawnmowers and one. Their comparatively easy integration into engine design and minimal effect on thrust made the chevron a breakthrough in noise-reduction technology. In 2002, NASA presented an innovation award to the Glenn, Langley, and Honeywell team that carried out the flights. Today, airliners such as the 737 MAX and 787 Dreamliner use chevron nozzles to lower noise levels for communities near airports.
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