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Galileo Second Generation Airbus satellite

To make the future of Galileo a reality, ESA and European industry are hard at work developing ultra-precise atomic clocks, system testbeds, ground mission and ground control segments and, of course, the satellites. Airbus Defence and Space, who is building six of the Galileo Second Generation constellation satellites, presented their first flight model structure to the programme’s stakeholders last week.

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    • By NASA
      On Jan. 7, 1610, Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei peered through his newly improved 20-power homemade telescope at the planet Jupiter. He noticed three other points of light near the planet, at first believing them to be distant stars. Observing them over several nights, he noted that they appeared to move in the wrong direction with regard to the background stars and they remained in Jupiter’s proximity but changed their positions relative to one another. Four days later, he observed a fourth point of light near the planet with the same unusual behavior. By Jan. 15, Galileo correctly concluded that he had discovered four moons orbiting around Jupiter, providing strong evidence for the Copernican theory that most celestial objects did not revolve around the Earth.  
      Two of Galileo’s telescopes.National Geographic. Painting by Giuseppe Bertini (1858) of Galileo demonstrating his telescope to the Doge of Venice.gabrielevanin.it Page from Galileo’s notebook about his observations of Jupiter’s satellites.University of Michigan Special Collections Library. In March 1610, Galileo published his discoveries of Jupiter’s satellites and other celestial observations in a book titled Siderius Nuncius (The Starry Messenger). As their discoverer, Galileo had naming rights to Jupiter’s satellites. He proposed to name them after his patrons the Medicis and astronomers called them the Medicean Stars through much of the seventeenth century, although in his own notes Galileo referred to them by the Roman numerals I, II, III, and IV, in order of their distance from Jupiter. Astronomers still refer to the four moons as the Galilean satellites in honor of their discoverer.  

      In 1614, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler suggested naming the satellites after mythological figures associated with Jupiter, namely Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, but his idea didn’t catch on for more than 200 years. Scientists didn’t discover any more satellites around Jupiter until 1892 when American astronomer E.E. Barnard found Jupiter’s fifth moon Amalthea, much smaller than the Galilean moons and orbiting closer to the planet than Io. It was the last satellite in the solar system found by visual observation – all subsequent discoveries occurred via photography or digital imaging. As of today, astronomers have identified 95 moons orbiting Jupiter. 
      Image of Jupiter and three of its four Galilean satellites through an amateur telescope, similar to what Galileo might have seen. Hubble Space Telescope image of Jupiter and three of its four Galilean satellites during a rare triple transit. Although each of the Galilean satellites has unique features, such as the volcanoes of Io, the heavily cratered surface of Callisto, and the magnetic field of Ganymede, scientists have focused more attention on Europa due to the tantalizing possibility that it might be hospitable to life. In the 1970s, NASA’s Pioneer 10 and 11 and Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft took ever increasingly detailed images of the large satellites including Europa during their flybys of Jupiter. The photographs revealed Europa to have the smoothest surface of any object in the solar system, indicating a relatively young crust, and also one of the brightest of any satellite indicating a highly reflective surface. These features led scientists to hypothesize that Europa is covered by an icy crust floating on a subsurface salty ocean. They further postulated that tidal heating caused by Jupiter’s gravity reforms the surface ice layer in cycles of melting and freezing.   

      Image of Europa taken by Pioneer 10 during its flyby of Jupiter in 1973. Image of Europa taken by Voyager 1 during its 1979 flyby of Jupiter. Image of Europa taken by Voyager 2 during its 1979 flyby of Jupiter. More detailed observations from NASA’s Galileo spacecraft that orbited Jupiter between 1995 and 2003 and completed 11 close encounters with Europa revealed that long linear features on its surface may indicate tidal or tectonic activity. Reddish-brown material along the fissures and in splotches elsewhere on the surface may contain salts and sulfur compounds transported from below the crust and modified by radiation. Observations from the Hubble Space Telescope and re-analysis of images from Galileo revealed possible plumes emanating from beneath Europa’s crust, lending credence to that hypothesis. While the exact composition of this material is not known, it likely holds clues to whether Europa may be hospitable to life.   
      Global view of Europa from the Galileo spacecraft. More detailed views of varied terrain on Europa from Galileo. Cutaway illustration of Europa’s icy crust, subsurface ocean and possible vents that transport material to the surface. Future robotic explorers of Europa may answer some of the outstanding questions about this unique satellite of Jupiter. NASA’s Europa Clipper set off in October 2024 on a 5.5-year journey to Jupiter. After its arrival in 2030, the spacecraft will enter orbit around the giant planet and conduct 49 flybys of Europa during its four-year mission. Managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, and the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, Europa Clipper will carry nine instruments including imaging systems and a radar to better understand the structure of the icy crust. Data from Europa Clipper will complement information returned by the European Space Agency’s JUICE (Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer) spacecraft. Launched in April 2023, JUICE will first enter orbit around Jupiter in 2031 and then enter orbit around Ganymede in 2034. The spacecraft also plans to conduct studies of Europa complementary with Europa Clipper’s. The two spacecraft should greatly increase our understanding of Europa and perhaps uncover new mysteries. 

      Illustration of the Europa Clipper spacecraft investigating Europa. Illustration of the JUICE spacecraft exploring Europa.European Space Agency. View the full article
    • By Space Force
      The inclusion of these C2 centers was a deliberate effort to add a layer of realism and enhance the exercise's effectiveness in preparing joint space forces for the challenges of the Great Power Competition.

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    • By NASA
      To put boots on the Moon—and keep them there—will require bold thinkers ready to tackle the challenges of tomorrow. 

      That’s why NASA’s Office of STEM Engagement at Johnson Space Center in Houston is on a mission to empower the next generation of explorers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). 

      Through the High School Aerospace Scholars (HAS) program, Texas juniors have the opportunity to immerse themselves in space exploration through interactive learning experiences. 

      “HAS is such an important program because we introduce students to the multitude of careers and experiences that contribute to space exploration,” said NASA HAS Activity Manager Jakarda Varnado. “We go beyond asking students who they want to be when they grow up and ask what problems they want to solve.” 

      Meet Former HAS Student Madeline King

      Madeline King always knew she wanted a career in STEM, with a dream of working at NASA influencing her decision to pursue a degree in Engineering.  

      Before joining HAS, King thought scientists mainly worked in labs and engineers focused on design. But the HAS program revealed a different reality—scientists and engineers often collaborated on interdisciplinary projects, sometimes even sharing roles.   
      Official portrait of Madeline King.NASA The program broadened King’s perspective on the diverse paths a STEM degree can lead to. It showed her that careers at NASA offer opportunities across various fields and disciplines. 

      King said participating in HAS helped to strengthen her problem-solving skills and ability to think creatively. The program required students to tackle complex technical tasks independently, emphasizing self-directed learning. King describes HAS as fun, challenging, and engaging, which helped her excel in technical roles.  

      “Learning to digest and internalize this information is a skill I continue to use when getting up to speed in new groups or taking on projects outside my current skill set,” said King.  

      Though King joined HAS during COVID-19, which limited in-person interactions, the experience still made an impact. Her mentors also offered insights into graduate school options, helping her weigh the benefits of advanced degrees against gaining hands-on experience at NASA.  

      The program opened doors to internships at Johnson in the Engineering Robotics and the Avionics Systems Integration Division. Now, she is studying mechanical engineering at the University of Houston, bringing passion and experience in electronics, robotics, education, project management, and aviation. 

      “Early on in my internship journey, HAS shined on my resume,” she said. “It demonstrated that I already had experience with NASA’s culture, values, and mission.” 
      Looking forward, King envisions herself as a flight controller, contributing to both the International Space Station Program and the Artemis campaign. Driven by her passion for NASA’s mission, King is just beginning her journey and is eager to be part of the future of space exploration. 

      “My internships since HAS have allowed me to make small contributions to both of these missions, and I’m excited to specialize as a full-time engineer,” said King.  

      Meet Caroline Vergara

      As a first-generation student, Caroline Vergara lacked the resources to fully explore her interests in aerospace engineering, let alone envision what that career might look like. That all changed when she was accepted into NASA’s HAS program. 

      “The exposure to real-world innovation ignited my desire to be part of something bigger, something that pushes the boundaries of human knowledge and capability,” she said.  
      Caroline Vergara announces the launch of the model rocket she built during her time in the HAS program. NASA/David DeHoyos Touring NASA facilities and watching engineers work on projects opened her eyes to the possibilities in STEM. Today, Vergara is a propulsion design engineering intern at United Launch Alliance, contributing to the Vulcan rocket as a Brooke Owens Fellow. 

      Vergara initially thought working in STEM was mostly about writing equations or running simulations but HAS showed her it is so much more. “A STEM career is about curiosity, collaboration, and the power to change the world,” she said. 

      During the program, Vergara joined a team of students to tackle a mission simulation project. They called themselves “Charlie and the Rocket Factory” and designed a prototype rocket together. Working with peers from all over the country showed her the power of diverse perspectives. She experienced firsthand what it was like to be part of a team with a shared vision, working toward something bigger than themselves. 

      Vergara also discovered her love for 3D printing and computer-aided design through HAS. She spent hours fine-tuning designs, fascinated by the process of turning digital models into physical reality. 

      Her experience with HAS also sparked a desire to give back. She returned to her hometown to share her story and encourage other students to pursue STEM. Partnering with Johnson Community Engagement Lead Jessica Cordero, she organized video conferences with NASA engineers on International Women in Engineering Day to inspire a new wave of students to be part of space exploration. 

      “The aerospace industry is entering a new space age, and we have the unique opportunity to put humans back on the Moon and explore beyond,” she said. 

      Her advice to the Artemis Generation is: “Go for it! You could be part of the generation that changes humanity’s destiny.” 
      Caroline Vergara, University of Houston Class of 2025. As a mechanical engineering honors student at the University of Houston and chief engineer of Space City Rocketry, Vergara envisions contributing to the Artemis campaign and advancing NASA’s mission to explore the cosmos. 

      “My dream is to contribute to space exploration efforts that put humans back on the Moon and beyond, and to one day work in Mission Control Center, where I can help guide those historic missions into the future.” 

      Meet Iker Aguirre

      For Iker Aguirre, the spark that ignited his journey toward a career in aerospace was lit by a passing conversation during his freshman year of high school. A senior classmate described the HAS program as a once-in-a-lifetime experience that cemented his passion for aerospace. That moment stayed with Aguirre, and when the opportunity arose, he did not hesitate to apply. 
      Iker Aguirre inside the Vehicle Assembly Building at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida. “HAS showed me that in order to accomplish something as complex as Artemis, you need a well-rounded set of teams and individuals,” he said. “You don’t need to study aerospace to be in the aerospace industry!” 

      In 2020, Aguirre participated during the remote-only version of HAS, but he recalls that the program still gave him a much deeper understanding of the spaceflight industry. 

      Despite already being interested in aerospace, Aguirre says HAS broadened his horizons, showing him the diverse pathways into the field. Through collaborative projects with peers across Texas, he discovered that solving the challenges of space exploration requires more than just aerospace engineers.  

      The program’s emphasis on teamwork left a lasting impression. During his time with HAS, Aguirre found himself working alongside students from different backgrounds, each bringing unique perspectives to problem-solving. It introduced him to dedicated and passionate people with various personalities and cultures who all shared similar dreams and aspirations as him.  

      Aguirre credits HAS with not only refining his technical skills but also shaping his approach to innovation and teamwork. That experience paid off as he moved through his academic and professional journey, including Pathways program internships with NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston and Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama.  

      “Getting connections at NASA through HAS helped me open many doors so far,” said Aguirre. “I met many good friends through HAS and my internship at Johnson, which I value to this day.” 

      Now pursuing a degree in rocket propulsion, with a focus on turbomachinery design, Aguirre remains committed to advancing space exploration. He hopes to contribute to humanity’s mobility in space, tackling challenges in rocket engine feed systems.  
      Iker Aguirre at NASA’s Johnson Space Center during his HAS internship. Through HAS, Aguirre found not just an educational program, but a community and a purpose. “My journey will forever be interlinked with NASA’s core values of benefiting humanity on and off the Earth,” he said. “I hope to inspire others just as much as the people who inspired me through my journey!” 
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    • By NASA
      3 min read
      Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
      Next Generation Lunar Retroreflector, or NGLR-1, is one of 10 payloads set to fly aboard the next delivery for NASA’s CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Services) initiative in 2025. NGLR-1, outfitted with a retroreflector, will be delivered to the lunar surface to reflect very short laser pulses from Earth-based lunar laser ranging observatories. Photo courtesy Firefly Aerospace Apollo astronauts set up mirror arrays, or “retroreflectors,” on the Moon to accurately reflect laser light beamed at them from Earth with minimal scattering or diffusion. Retroreflectors are mirrors that reflect the incoming light back in the same incoming direction. Calculating the time required for the beams to bounce back allowed scientists to precisely measure the Moon’s shape and distance from Earth, both of which are directly affected by Earth’s gravitational pull. More than 50 years later, on the cusp of NASA’s crewed Artemis missions to the Moon, lunar research still leverages data from those Apollo-era retroreflectors.
      As NASA prepares for the science and discoveries of the agency’s Artemis campaign, state-of-the-art retroreflector technology is expected to significantly expand our knowledge about Earth’s sole natural satellite, its geological processes, the properties of the lunar crust and the structure of lunar interior, and how the Earth-Moon system is changing over time. This technology will also allow high-precision tests of Einstein’s theory of gravity, or general relativity.
      That’s the anticipated objective of an innovative science instrument called NGLR (Next Generation Lunar Retroreflector), one of 10 NASA payloads set to fly aboard the next lunar delivery for the agency’s CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Services) initiative. NGLR-1 will be carried to the surface by Firefly Aerospace’s Blue Ghost 1 lunar lander.
      Developed by researchers at the University of Maryland in College Park, NGLR-1 will be delivered to the lunar surface, located on the Blue Ghost lander, to reflect very short laser pulses from Earth-based lunar laser ranging observatories, which could greatly improve on Apollo-era results with sub-millimeter-precision range measurements. If successful, its findings will expand humanity’s understanding of the Moon’s inner structure and support new investigations of astrophysics, cosmology, and lunar physics – including shifts in the Moon’s liquid core as it orbits Earth, which may cause seismic activity on the lunar surface.
      “NASA has more than half a century of experience with retroreflectors, but NGLR-1 promises to deliver findings an order of magnitude more accurate than Apollo-era reflectors,” said Dennis Harris, who manages the NGLR payload for the CLPS initiative at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama.
      Deployment of the NGLR payload is just the first step, Harris noted. A second NGLR retroreflector, called the Artemis Lunar Laser Retroreflector (ALLR), is currently a candidate payload for flight on NASA’s Artemis III mission to the Moon and could be set up near the lunar south pole. A third is expected to be manifested on a future CLPS delivery to a non-polar location.
      “Once all three retroreflectors are operating, they are expected to deliver unprecedented opportunities to learn more about the Moon and its relationship with Earth,” Harris said.
      Under the CLPS model, NASA is investing in commercial delivery services to the Moon to enable industry growth and support long-term lunar exploration. As a primary customer for CLPS deliveries, NASA aims to be one of many customers on future flights. NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, manages the development of seven of the 10 CLPS payloads carried on Firefly’s Blue Ghost lunar lander.
      Learn more about. CLPS and Artemis at:
      https://www.nasa.gov/clps
      Alise Fisher
      Headquarters, Washington
      202-358-2546
      Alise.m.fisher@nasa.gov
      Headquarters, Washington
      202-358-2546
      Alise.m.fisher@nasa.gov
      Corinne Beckinger 
      Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala. 
      256-544-0034  
      corinne.m.beckinger@nasa.gov 
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      Details
      Last Updated Jan 02, 2025 EditorBeth RidgewayContactCorinne M. Beckingercorinne.m.beckinger@nasa.govLocationMarshall Space Flight Center Related Terms
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