NASA

Citation Bobby W. Sanders was a widely recognized national technical authority in high-speed inlet technology. He conducted research on all aspects of military and commercial aircraft engine inlets, including conceptual definition, complete design, and testing for military and commercial applications. He conceived, managed, and guided the technical implementation of the center’s inlet research for subsonic through hypersonic propulsion systems. His 50-year legacy includes over sixty publications, eight patents, and the mentoring of two generations of center engineers. Biography Bobby W. Sanders was a nationally-recognized leader in the advancement of engine inlet technology for over 50 years. He was engaged in the conceptualization, design, and testing of a diverse array of inlets for both military and commercial applications. Sanders joined the NASA Lewis Research Center in 1963 as part of the Advanced Development and Evaluation Division. At the time, the division was testing space vehicles in the 8- by 6-Foot Foot Supersonic Wind Tunnel (8×6) and the 10- by 10-Foot Foot supersonic Supersonic Wind Tunnel (10×10). One of Sanders’ first assignments was the aerodynamic shroud testing for the Mariner-C spacecraft and the Atlas-–Agena launch vehicle. The tests verified the dynamic performance of the oversized shroud and vehicle. Sanders went on to compare the data with similar tests of the Agena/Lunar Orbiter shroud. Sanders also performed wind tunnel testing of the Apollo Command Service Module and its escape tower. The tests determined the effect of the escape tower’s control flaps on its overall aerodynamic stability. As the center reorganized in the mid-1960s to increase its aeronautics research, Sanders became a member of the Inlets Section in the new Wind Tunnels and Flight Division. Initially, this group focused on issues related to supersonic transport propulsion systems. Sanders helped prepare the center’s F-106 Delta Dart to support this research effort. During this period, Sanders developed and tested many inlet bleed geometries and bleed airflow control strategies in the center’s wind tunnels to increase the range of stable airflow in supersonic mixed-compression inlets. This led to the development of bleed systems for supersonic inlets that improved performance and increased stability. The inlet bleed system, which draws small amounts of air from the inlet’s porous surfaces, stabilizes the supersonic shock wave system in order to maximize performance. It also mitigates disturbances in the incoming airflow and in engine airflow demand. This reduces flow through the compressor to prevent stall and choking. Sanders and Glenn Mitchell patented a passive-bleed airflow control system in 1971. Subsequent testing of this passive-bleed control system on an inlet from the SR–71 aircraft in the 10×10 demonstrated that the bleed system significantly increased inlet stability. Sanders’ inlet bleed stability research has been fundamental to the development of many subsequent high-speed inlet designs. The center reorganized in 1983, and Sanders became a member of the Aerodynamics and Engine Systems Division. There he led a joint NASA and industry team that supported the design of a supersonic cruise demonstrator aircraft by investigating technological issues in the largely ignored Mach 3 to 6 range. Several agencies used data from testing of the vehicle’s ramjet engine inlet in the 10×10 to validate computations fluid dynamics (CFD) predictions. It was the first demonstration of a large-scale, high-performance, Mach 5 cruise inlet. In 1986, Sanders was named deputy chief of the Propulsion Systems Division’s Hypersonic Technology Branch. The branch was responsible for performing analysis and testing of hypersonic inlets, nozzles and combustors to support the National Aerospace Plane (NASP) program. Sanders defined the parameters for the NASP inlet/combustor combination and led a series of research tests that provided definitive information on inlet performance and interaction issues. Sanders also initiated the center’s study of a variable diameter centerbody (VDC) inlet for supersonic propulsion. He designed an inlet diffuser using a folding-leaf mechanism for the variable diameter centerbody, a configuration that offered high performance and stability. The innovative system provided the required area variation while permitting inlet bleed without leakage and maintaining acceptable aerodynamics in the diffuser. The inlet was successfully demonstrated during wind tunnel testing as part of the High-Speed Research program. Sanders received awards for his contributions to the VDC inlet, Mach 5 inlet, and NASP program. In 1991 NASA awarded Sanders the Exceptional Service Award “for outstanding personal dedication, engineering insight, and leadership in defining, conducting, and guiding high-speed inlet research.” In 1996, Sanders was named chief of Inlet & Propulsion Airframe Integration Technology Branch. He retired later that year after 33 years at NASA. Sanders was not finished with inlets, though. He founded TechLand Research Inc. where he collaborated with NASA, the military, and industry for another 20 years. At TechLand he conceived several new designs, including an external-compression supersonic inlet, a variable geometry concept supersonic cruise inlet, a rotary airflow control valve and isolator for a pulse detonation engine (PDE), and an over-under dual-flow hypersonic inlet. Sanders patented three more inlet concepts, a bleed valve concept, and the PDE valve during his time at Techland. He was among those receiving NASA’s Steven Szabo Engineering Excellence Award in 2005 and Distinguished Publication Award in 2009. Sanders passed away in 2020 at the age of 81. Related Documents Sanders Resume Sanders Press Releases Photographs Sanders examines a model of the Mariner‒C shroud and Agena rocket in the 8- by 6-Foot Supersonic Wind Tunnel.NASA Sanders views testing of the Apollo command module and its launch escape system in the 8 by-6 Supersonic Wind Tunnel. NASA Sanders prepares a model of the Apollo command module and its launch escape system in the 8 by-6 Supersonic Wind Tunnel. NASA Bobby Sanders (left) and Robert Coltrin check full-scale flight inlet prior to test run in the 10 by-10 Supersonic Wind Tunnel. NASA Bobby Sanders and Robert Coltrin with the Mach 5 Inlet model in the 10 by-10 Supersonic Wind Tunnel. NASA Chanthy Iek (left) and Bobby Sanders with a 2-dimensional inlet in the 9 by-15 Low Speed Wind Tunnel. NASA Bobby Sanders receives NASA’s Exceptional Service Medal in 1991 for his high-speed inlet work. NASA Center Director Ramon Lugo presents Bobby Sanders with NASA’s Distinguished Publication Award in 2009. NASAView the full article

Citation Edward Raymond Sharp, known as “Ray,” was the center’s director for its first 20 years. Sharp expedited the wartime construction of the laboratory; empowered the research staff with the freedom and tools to succeed; and inspired fierce commitment and loyalty among the staff. Employees, management, local officials, and visitors were all drawn to Sharp’s enormous personality. Although lacking any formal scientific of engineering training, Sharp’s determination to provide for his staff, attentiveness to the work being done, and sincere affection for the staff made him the rock upon which the center was built. Biography Edward Raymond Sharp, known as Ray, was, the guiding force for the first 20 years of the laboratory that would become the NASA Glenn Research Center. Sharp expedited the wartime construction of the lab, empowered the research staff with the freedom and tools to succeed, and inspired fierce commitment and loyalty among the staff. Employees, management, local officials, and visitors were all drawn to Sharp’s enormous personality. Although Sharp lacked any formal scientific or engineering training, his determination to provide for his staff, attentiveness to the work being done, and sincere affection for the staff made him the rock upon which the Center was built. Sharp was born in rural Elizabeth City, Virginia, in 1894. As a young man he worked in shipyards all along the southeastern coastline. During World War I he served on the USS Sacramento gunboat, which managed to escort convoys through the North Atlantic and Mediterranean without engaging in battle. After the war, Sharp returned to the shipyards. In 1922 the Army hired him to lead the reassembling of the ill-fated Roma airship at Langley Field. Upon completion of the project, the NACA hired Sharp as its hangar manager. He was the NACA’s 54th employee. During this period Sharp earned a law degree at William and Mary and was quickly promoted. As Langley’s Administrative Officer, Sharp was subordinate only to Engineer in Charge Henry Reid from 1925 to 1940. The two men ran the laboratory and handled all dealings between Langley and Headquarters. In September 1940 Langley named Sharp the chief of its Construction Division. This was a significant position, since the NACA had just decided to create two new research laboratories—the Ames Aeronautical Laboratory in Sunnyvale, California, and the Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory (which would later would become NASA Glenn) in Cleveland, Ohio. The NACA transferred Sharp to California in 1940 to supervise the construction of Ames. As that process was nearing completion in 1941, Sharp returned to Langley to supervise the construction and design of the engine lab. He also participated in the team that ultimately selected Cleveland for the new lab. In August 1941 Sharp arrived in Cleveland to personally oversee the construction—which was already over budget and behind schedule. For the next year and a half, Sharp worked tirelessly to complete the work and make the Lab operational. The completion of the hangar in the fall of 1941 was the first big accomplishment. This permitted the first transfer of Langley personnel to Cleveland in December 1941, just as the United States entered the war. Sharp was crucial to the difficult negotiation of a contract with the primary construction company. He and Headquarters officials brought the contract to the White House on December 31 where President Roosevelt approved it. The pace of the construction accelerated almost immediately, and the Laboratory was completed ahead of schedule. As the facilities were beginning to operate in December 1942, Headquarters asked Construction Manager Ray Sharp to stay on and administer the new Laboratory upon its completion. This decision brought an outpouring of gratitude from the staff. At nearly 50 years old, Sharp was one of the oldest people at the laboratory. As such, he and his wife Vera were natural parental figures—particularly for the large number of young mechanics and clerical and administrative staff members at the lab. Sharp was frequently out of his office visiting the test cells and offices. As a result he was familiar with nearly every employee and, despite his lack aeronautical training, understood the work being done. Sharp also made a conscious effort to unify the staff by hosting a wide array of social events, extracurricular activities, and sports leagues. Sharp also encouraged the use of young, untrained individuals. He was among the first to recognize the potential of teenage model aircraft enthusiasts. The lab used aircraft model builders to create models for wind tunnel tests, but Sharp felt that their ability to continually improve designs was applicable to a range of NACA positions. To facilitate this, he instituted the Apprentice Program, which trained unskilled individuals to be mechanics, electricians, and technicians. Sharp came from a managerial background. Instead of trying to direct the lab’s research himself, he entrusted this to his technical staff—particularly Chief of Research Addison Rothrock and the core division chiefs that transferred from Langley. Sharp claimed that he would rather have employees view him as an advisor rather than a boss. Immediately after the war, he allowed his staff to reorganize the new laboratory to focus on turbojets. In 1949 Sharp appointed Abe Silverstein, the head of the Wind Tunnels and Flight Division, to fill the vacant chief of research position. It soon became the associate director position. Sharp handled the administrative aspects of running the laboratory, while Silverstein managed the research and test facilities. It was a highly successful arrangement. Sharp managed the Lab’s budget, operations, and dealings with Headquarters and the local community. He was unafraid to fight Headquarters, Congress, or other institutions to provide his staff with the tools they needed to carry out their work—world-class facilities, valuable new staff members, and funding—to create the environment for his employees to succeed. Sharp was proud of their successes. He readily showed the lab off to visitors or in the press, and regularly posed for photographs with guests in front of the Administration Building. In 1947 President Truman awarded Sharp the U.S. Medal for Merit for his work to get the laboratory functioning quickly during World War II. The following year, Case Institute of Technology awarded him an honorary doctorate degree. Sharp continued to lead as the space program began to take shape. He pushed forward his staff’s opinion that the NACA should lead the new space efforts, and he served on the NACA’s Special Committee on Space Technology, which ultimately outlined the role that the NACA would play when the new space agency—NASA—was founded. Sharp retired on December 31, 1960—nearly 40 years after joining the NACA. NASA awarded him with its Medal for Outstanding Leadership and named him Director Emeritus. Ray Sharp passed away in July 1961. At the NASA Lewis Research Center’s memorial service, Acting Director Gene Manganiello said, “Because this choice of words is so difficult, let me borrow a statement from Disraeli: “Life is too short to be little.” This to me expressed perfectly the person, the philosophy, and the character of Ray Sharp. He was not little but big—big in everything—in person, in the enjoyment of life, in ideas, in humanitarianism, and in the conception and execution of all enterprises with which he was associated.” In 1986 center management decided to name the new Employee Center in honor of Sharp. Related Documents Sharp Center Director Biography Sharp: Leading from the Ground Up Sharp–An Appreciation (1961) Sharp Biographical Sketches (1950s) Sharp Articles (1941-2009) Sharp Named Manager (1940) Sharp Service Medal (1947) Sharp Medical Library Press Release (1963) Photographs Director Raymond Sharp at his desk in the Administration Building (1944). NASA Sharp hosts General Dwight Eisenhower and other officials during a visit to the lab (4/1//1946). NASA Ray Sharp and Congressman A. David Baumhart break ground in Sandusky for the Plum Brook Reactor Facility (9/26/1956). NASA Ray Sharp and Associate Director Abe Silverstein look at a model of a ramjet-powered aircraft in October 1951. NASA Sharp leads General Dwight Eisenhower and NACA Secretary John Victory on a tour of the laboratory (4/11/1946). NASA Ray Sharp admires holiday illustration created by his staff (12/26/1946). NASA Ray Sharp’s NASA badge (c1960). NASA Ray Sharp with his son Eddie, who was a draftsman at the lab in the 1940s and early 1950s. NASAView the full article

Citation Glenn Research Center established itself as a hub of heat transfer expertise early in its history. Rooted in basic research, as opposed to applied, this group developed new theories that would transform the body of knowledge up to that point. Robert Deissler, Simon Ostrach, adn Robert Siegel are three of the most influential heat transfer researchers in center history. Their theoretical skills made them world-renown in their own right, and it was the application of their theories that would help the center expand and excel in emerging fields such as jet engines, nuclear propulsion, and space exploration. Both Deissler and Siegel wrote seminal text books on the subject. Ostrach is a pioneer in the fields of buoyancy-driven flows and microgravity science. Biography Robert Siegel began his career at the Laboratory in 1955. His first work was with the heat transfer group, investigating issues with nuclear aircraft propulsion. Later, he became head of the Analytical Heat Transfer Section. Siegel began investigating heat transfer for conditions in space, leading him to design the world’s first drop tower in 1957. Siegel is regarded internationally as an expert on heat transfer, thanks in part to his text book, “Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer,” which he coauthored with J.W. Howell. When Siegel set out to develop a course on heat transfer for the center, he was not able to find a suitable textbook. The course notes he developed grew into this text book, which was published in 1972. There have been five editions of the book, and it has been translated into several languages. It is still used widely as a graduate-level textbook. In 1970 Siegel was awarded the ASME Heat Transfer Memorial Award, which recognizes pioneers in the field of heat transfer, for his many significant contributions to the knowledge of boiling, radiation, convection, and conduction, including pioneering experiments under zero-gravity conditions. Siegel was elected as an ASME fellow in 1977 and an AIAA Fellow in 1991. In 1986 he was awarded NASA’s Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal for his numerous important and wide-ranging contributions to the field of heat transfer, including some of the earliest work on zero-gravity boiling, radiation heat transfer in porous media, and transient natural convection heat transfer. In 1996 he was presented with the Max Jakob Award for his distinguished contributions in the field of heat transfer. He retired from NASA in 1999. Dr. Robert Siegel passed away in September 2017. Related Documents Siegel Articles (1959-1999) Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer (NASA SP-164) Photographs Bob Siegel poses in his Engine Research Building office with the books he authored (1980). NASA Siegel with microgravity equipment. Bob Siegel uses a 9-foot drop tower to study fluid boiling in microgravity (4/29/1960). NASA study fluid boiling in microgravity (4/29/1960). Ede and Siegel Bob Siegel hosts Allen Ede from the UK National Engineering Laboratory in Scotland (9/14/1961). NASA Robert Siegel examines test section of 9-foot drop tower used for microgravity research (1960). NASA Bob Siegel poses with the heat transfer textbook he and J.W. Howell wrote (1972). NASA Cartoon illustrating Robert Siegel’s return to Case Western Reserve University (1990). NASA Deputy Director Gerald Barna (right) and newscaster Leon Bibb present Siegel with his 40-Year Service Award (6/7/1995). NASA Mechanical engineer Priscilla Diem congratulates Bob Siegel after the Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony (9/25/2015). NASAView the full article

Citation Abe Silverstein began his career at the center in 1943, pioneering early jet technology. Dr. Silverstein was responsible for the conception, design, and construction of the nation’s earliest supersonic wind tunnels. His early support for the use of liquid hydrogen was key in the success of the Apollo Program. His advocacy for the center to lead the Centaur program put the center at the forefront of space travel and set the course for the exploration of the solar system. His influence on the agency can still be felt as one of the architects of NASA and early human space programs. When NASA was formed in 1958, he was appointed NASA Chief of Space Flight Programs and is credited with naming both the Mercury and Apollo programs. He would return from HQ to become the center director in 1961 until his retirement in 1969. In 1997 he was awarded the prestigious Guggenheim Medal for his contributions. Known for his legendary technical abilities, leadership, and vision, few have left a mark on the center as Abe Silverstein. Biography Abe Silverstein is perhaps the preeminent figure in the history of the NASA Glenn Research Center. Although Silverstein is best known for his efforts in establishing NASA in the late 1950s, he made significant technical and managerial contributions in an great array of fields—including the study of complete engine systems, the development of the Nation’s early jet engines, the creation of large supersonic wind tunnels, the use of liquid hydrogen as a propellant, the formation of the Mercury and Apollo Programs, and the success of the Centaur rocket. Silverstein was born on September 15, 1908, in Terre Haute, Indiana. He graduated from the Rose Polytechnic Institute in 1929 with a bachelor’s of science degree in mechanical engineering and returned to earn a degree as a Mechanical Engineering Professional in 1934. After graduation, the National Advisory Committee on Aviation (NACA) offered Silverstein an engineering position at the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory. There, he helped Smith DeFrance design a massive new test facility, the Full Scale Tunnel (FST). Silverstein designed the tunnel’s supporting framework so that it would be on the exterior of the tunnel, where it would not cause turbulence in the airstream. Silverstein remained at the FST as a researcher after it began operating in May 1931. Although primarily involved in Langley’s typical aerodynamics work, Silverstein also conducted engine cooling investigations that portended his future work at Lewis. He assumed DeFrance’s role as chief of the FST when DeFrance departed in 1940. In this role, Silverstein led Langley’s World War II effort to use the tunnel to minimize the drag on U.S. military aircraft. The NACA expanded during the war and created the new Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory (which would later become NASA Glenn) in Cleveland. Silverstein was transferred to Cleveland in 1943 to run the Altitude Wind Tunnel: the new laboratory’s premier facility. The military soon made arrangements with Silverstein for the first U.S. jet aircraft—the Bell YP–59A Airacomet—to be the first test in the new tunnel. At that point only a few people in the NACA were aware that the United States had a jet engine. Although the aircraft’s General Electric I–16 engines were too problematic to be used in the war, the jet engine would transform the aviation industry and research at the Lab. Silverstein and his colleagues then resolved a critical engine cooling issue on the Wright R–3350 engines that powered the new B–29 Superfortress, and Silverstein’s insertion of baffles into the engine was a key element of the resolution. Silverstein and his staff concentrated on other early turbojet engines throughout the remainder of the war. In 1945 he also contributed to the first successful operation of an afterburner. In October 1945, Silverstein was promoted to chief of the Lab’s new Wind Tunnels and Flight Division. Among the first at the laboratory to grasp the importance of the jet engine and high-speed flight, he initiated a series of evening classes so that the staff could educate one another on these topics. The NACA appointed him to its High Speed Research Panel along with John Stack, Russell Robinson, and Julian Allen. During this period, Silverstein began planning several quickly constructed small supersonic wind tunnels and what would then be the NACA’s largest supersonic tunnel, the 8- by 6-Foot Supersonic Wind Tunnel. Silverstein then urged the creation of what is still today the Nation’s largest propulsion tunnel, the 10- by 10-Foot Supersonic Wind Tunnel. In 1949, Silverstein was named chief of research for the entire Lab. His role was expanded, and the position was renamed associate director in 1952. Silverstein had always been an influential force at the Lab, but now he was able to expand the research into unprecedented areas, such as high-energy propellants and nuclear and electric propulsion. In the mid-1950s he disbanded the Laboratory’s largest division, Compressors and Turbines, and created two new divisions—the Nuclear Reactor Division and the Fluids Systems Components Division—to study nuclear propulsion and cryogenic fuels, respectively. He had successfully convinced the NACA to build the Plum Brook Reactor Facility on a large remote tract of land to investigate the effect of radiation on nuclear aircraft and rocket engine components. The importance of Silverstein’s advocacy for the use of liquid hydrogen as a propellant cannot be overstated. Early rocketeers had theorized about using liquid hydrogen, but the technology did not exist to make it happen. The military briefly considered it after World War II but quickly gave up on the idea. It was at this point in the early 1950s that Lewis researchers were analyzing a variety of high-energy propellants, including hydrogen. Some successful tests in 1954 convinced Silverstein to pursue hydrogen over the other alternatives. He and Eldon Hall authored a report which foretold of liquid-hydrogen missions that far surpassed those using traditional hydrocarbon fuels. On the basis of these findings, the Air Force asked Silverstein to develop an actual flight version of the system. After extensive ground testing, the system was integrated into a B–57 Canberra. During the winter and spring of 1957, the B–57 successfully flew several flights with liquid hydrogen as the fuel. Although the hydrogen-fueled aircraft was never developed, in the coming years Silverstein would push for the use of liquid hydrogen in the space program. In the mid-1950s there was increasing talk in research circles about entering space. Although NACA management considered space outside of the mandate, Silverstein and several Lewis colleagues viewed it as a natural progression of their aeronautics work. Lewis drafted documents outlining the requirements for a new laboratory dedicated exclusively to space flight and the role of the NACA in space research. It was not until the launch of Sputnik in the fall of 1957 that Headquarters reversed their policy. NACA Director Hugh Dryden requested Silverstein’s assistance in creating the new space agency. After several months of commuting, Silverstein officially transferred to Headquarters in May 1958. At Headquarters, Silverstein worked with Robert Gilruth, Morton Stoller, Edgar Cortright, and Newell Sanders to create an operating budget and plan future satellite, space probe, and human missions into space. The group devised a fiscal year 1960 budget by mid-July and began planning missions that included both satellites and manned spacecraft. When NASA began operation on October 1, 1958, T. Keith Glennan was its Administrator, Hugh Dryden was its Deputy Administrator, and Silverstein was its Chief of Space Flight Programs—third in command. Silverstein’s accomplishments in Washington, DC, are well documented: planning a variety of space missions, creating the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, chairing the Mercury capsule source selection board, naming the Mercury and Apollo programs, and coauthoring a paper for Lyndon Johnson in May 1961 that summarized the logistics of landing humans on the Moon. Despite these endeavors, Silverstein’s most enduring feat was his push to use liquid hydrogen. In 1958 he led a review team which noted that high-energy fuels would be required to carry out the missions that NASA was planning. In late 1959 NASA created the Saturn Vehicle Team, known as the “Silverstein Committee,” to select upper stages for the Saturn rocket. Silverstein persuaded Werner von Braun to only consider stages that could use liquid hydrogen. There had been no hydrogen rockets to date, so von Braun was wary, but he ultimately conceded to Silverstein’s point that the agency should be planning for the future. When new Administrator James Webb reorganized the management of the space program in 1961, Silverstein did not agree with the new structure and asked to return to Lewis to fill the vacant center director post. Upon his arrival in November 1961, Silverstein assumed the traditional director roles, but he also had to deal with NASA’s unprecedented hiring rate, the design of a host of new space test facilities, and management of several new development programs, including the Centaur rocket. Centaur was a liquid-hydrogen-fueled upper-stage rocket that NASA was relying on to send Surveyor spacecraft to explore the lunar surface during the early stages of the Apollo Program. The NASA Marshall Space Flight Center managed Centaur initially, but the program was transferred to Lewis in October 1962 after the failure of the first launch. Silverstein became the unofficial head of the Centaur program and was deeply involved with day-to-day operations. Lewis had remedied most of the problems and successfully launched the Centaur in November 1963. Centaur went on to not only complete the Surveyor missions but launch scores of satellites and send probes to planets all over the solar system. Silverstein believed in selecting the best people for the most important projects, even if they were not involved in that field; staying ahead of the research curve; and testing full-scale systems in conditions that simulated those in which they would operate. He could instantly grasp the essence of a problem, propose a likely solution, and delegate the task to the experts to resolve. This off-the-cuff acumen and decisiveness inspired both fear and intense loyalty from staff and colleagues. Silverstein did not hesitate to call meetings in the evenings or on weekends, but he knew nearly every employee by name and took a genuine interest in the work that they were performing. Though employees were sometimes irritated or fearful of Silverstein’s comments, it appears that almost everyone respected his judgment and looked to him for technical direction. Silverstein contributed to at least 50 technical reports during his career and presented papers at many significant conferences in the United States and abroad. He also received several honorary degrees, NASA’s Outstanding Leadership and Exceptional Service medals, and the Guggenheim Medal. Silverstein retired in the summer of 1969 just as the Apollo program was reaching its apex. After 40 years with the NACA and NASA, he sought new challenges and spent many years advocating for a new jetport to be built in downtown Cleveland. In 1994, the center instituted the Abe Silverstein Award to annually honor an employee performing outstanding research with practical applications; and renamed its 10- by 10-foot tunnel to honor Silverstein: the Abe Silverstein 10- by 10-Foot Supersonic Wind Tunnel. Silverstein died on June 1, 2001, at the age of 92. Related Documents National Academy of Engineering Memorial Tribute (2013) Silverstein Center Director Biography Silverstein Biographical Sketches (1959-1973) Low Memo on Apollo Working Group (1960) Early Architect of Apollo Landing Dies (2001) Photographs Abe Silverstein prepares to discuss the research activities conducted in the Altitude Wind Tunnel during World War II for members of the Institute for Aeronautical Science (3/26/1946). NASA Abe Silverstein measures ice buildup on the Westinghouse J34 engine (1948). NASA Associate Director Abe Silverstein addresses the press and guests at the groundbreaking for the Plum Brook Reactor Facility (9/26/1956). NASA Associate Director Abe Silverstein welcomes General Curtis LeMay and his colleagues to Lewis (6/7/1957). NASA NASA Administrator James Webb and Lewis Director Abe Silverstein talk to the media prior to a Technology Utilization Conference in 1964. NASA Silverstein takes astronaut James McDivitt and his wife Judy on a tour of the center (7/9/1965). NASA Lewis Director Abe Silverstein with his Town Crier of the Year Award from the Cleveland Press Club (1969). NASA Don Campbell, Lewis Director, congratulates Silverstein on the renaming of the 10-By 10-Foot Supersonic Wind Tunnel in his honor (7/21/1995). NASAView the full article

Citation Erwin “Erv” Zaretsky’s research in increasing life and reliability of mechanical components has significantly advanced the state of the art of bearings and gears for an array of aircraft, helicopter, and shuttle propulsion systems. Zaretsky performed pioneering research in rolling-element fatigue, lubrication, and probabilistic life prediction. His 50-plus years of work at the Center contributed significantly to NASA missions and enabled the Center to develop a strong technical competency in tribology and advanced mechanical systems. Zaretsky reached the Government’s highest engineering rank and served as a Distinguished Research Associate. He authored two books and over 200 papers. Biography Erwin “Erv” Zaretsky is a internationally-recognized authority in the field of tribology. His groundbreaking work on rolling-element bearings, high-temperature lubrication, probabilistic life prediction, and ceramic and hybrid bearings has had direct effects on the design of aircraft, helicopters, and the space shuttle. Zaretsky had committed to enter the Air Force Flight School after graduating from Illinois Institute of Technology in 1957. To appease a persistent professor, Zaretsky agreed to meet with officials from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) in Cleveland, Ohio before beginning flight school. The interview went well and Zaretsky accepted an offer to work temporarily at the NACA on heat transfer issues. That summer Zaretsky decided to shorten his Air Force obligation by forgoing flight school and enlisting as an engineer assigned to the NACA. After being stationed overseas, Zaretsky was detailed to the center in January 1959. He was assigned to the Bearings Section of the Fluid System’s Division under William Anderson. At Lewis, Zaretsky led an effort to increase the temperature, speed, and lifetime of ball and rolling element bearings through design and processing advances. Bearings were critical elements of jet engines, but manufacturers did not have the necessary tools to dramatically improve their performance. One of Zaretsky’s first assignments was to bring Anderson’s concept of a multiple ball bearing tester to fruition. This Five Ball-Fatigue Test Rig accelerated the pace of bearing fatigue testing by operating around the clock for extended durations. The rig, and several others that soon followed, operated for more than 500,000 hours over 25 years and became a standard industry tool. In 1960 Zaretsky authored the first of his 200-plus papers and accompanied Anderson to a key technical conference. The young engineer met and formed enduring relationships with several luminaries in the bearings field. These relationships influenced both Zaretsky’s research and future technical programs at Lewis. Zaretsky remained active in technical societies the rest of his career and was named an American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Fellow. In 1965 Zaretsky, Anderson, and Richard Parker published an equation relating rolling-element bearing fatigue life to compressive residual stresses. The researchers developed a method for increasing the life of the rolling contact bearings by up to 500 percent. They continued their efforts to apply the hardness differential concept to other bearing applications. The culmination of the group’s efforts came in 1973 with a 2500-hour, high-speed test of two ball bearings incorporating the group’s advanced technologies. Zaretsky, working with industry partners, designed a test rig to simulate the conditions inside an advanced turbine aircraft engine. The bearings operated at faster speeds, high temperatures, and significantly longer durations than typical bearings. The technology is now standard for the design of all aircraft engine bearings. Zaretsky received Industrial Research Magazine’s IR-100 Award for this effort. Zaretsky also studied rolling-element bearings for chemical rocket engines in the 1960s. Advanced propulsion systems use cryogenic propellants that come into direct contact with turbopump bearings. Zaretsky and his colleagues tested the rolling-element bearing components in liquid hydrogen and liquid nitrogen to determine the optimal design and the best solid lubricant. Their findings have been incorporated into rocket engine designs ever since. In 1964 Zaretsky was named a section head within the Bearings Branch. He successfully advocated for an expansion of his section’s work to include gears and mechanical drive systems. The section, renamed the Bearing Materials and Gearing Section, designed test machines to study new designs, materials, and lubrication to improve reliability and lifespan of these components. The section created several new facilities to test gears and transmissions, including the 500-hp helicopter transmission facility. As a result the center added drive systems to its competencies and an array of new transmission designs were developed for rotorcraft and automotive gas turbine applications. In the early 1970s, Lewis partnered with the US Army Propulsion Laboratory on the Helicopter Transmission System Technology Program. Zaretsky’s group studied the effect of new component designs on contemporary transmissions and investigated novel, experimental transmission designs. The program, which produced over 85 papers, contributed toward quieter and more efficient transmission systems with higher power-to-weight ratios and significantly improved life and reliability. The Lewis tribologists also expanded their efforts to include structural life prediction, particularly regarding the components for the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) turbopumps. Anderson and Zaretsky warned that the SSME turbopump bearings had not been sufficiently tested for the conditions they would experience in flight, which could result in a catastrophic failure. It was an unpopular position given the pressure to get the program underway. In 1984, Zaretsky successfully lobbied for a new policy to limit the use of individual turbopump bearings to a single shuttle flight. Zaretsky received a NASA Special Act Award for this effort. After the Challenger accident in 1986, Zaretsky led a Lewis team that assessed the reliability and life expectancy of the SSME turbopump for the next shuttle mission. The agency requested Zaretsky’s expertise when the SSME oxygen pump bearings cracked during a December 1988 shuttle flight. He determined that the bearing material had a stress corrosion problem that was related to the installation date and calculated that bearings installed on two other shuttles could potentially fail. Zaretsky’s forceful urging resulted in the replacement of the turbopumps prior to the next scheduled flight in February 1989. Zaretsky’s efforts were recognized by NASA’s Manned Flight Awareness Program. In the midst of these activities, the center terminated nearly all of its bearing and gear research and reassigned Zaretsky’s section members. Zaretsky transitioned to a new position as the Structures Division’s chief engineer, which afforded him the flexibility to write two books: “Life Factors for Rolling Bearings” and “Tribology for Aerospace Applications.” He also served on the Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) Committee and led a 3-year joint NASA and Pratt & Whitney program to study metal matrix composite materials. During this period, Zaretsky developed a new modelling technique that incorporated the impact of random factors into life prediction tools for rotating components. Zaretsky served as a consultant in the investigation of the Columbia accident in 2003. He determined that there was insufficient technical data on the bearings and gears for the shuttle’s brake actuators. Despite pressure to keep the Return to Flight on schedule, Zaretsky pushed for the necessary testing and inspection of the actuators which revealed several unforeseen and potentially catastrophic issues. Zaretsky led the effort to establish the proper practices and technologies to prevent actuator damage. These recommendations were incorporated into the shuttle program. In 1998, Zaretsky was appointed to the Senior Scientific and Professional corps as a Senior Technologist, the highest rank achievable to a federal engineer or scientist. He retired in January 2009 with over 50 years at the center. In retirement, Zaretsky continued serving the center as a Distinguished Research Associate in the Rotating and Drive Systems Branch and maintained his office and extensive reference library. In addition to his technical accomplishments, Zaretsky provided both technical and career guidance to several generations of employees. He was also very active in ASME and chaired the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE) Bearing Life Factors Committee. He has published over 200 technical papers and two books and has received over 50 NASA and professional awards, including the NASA Medal for Exceptional Engineering Achievement Honor Award (1990), the NASA Silver Snoopy Award (2004), and 4 R&D 100 Awards. Related Documents Zaretsky Oral History Interview (2014) NASA Glenn—A Look Back article by Zaretsky (2016) Zaretsky articles (1964-2015) Photographs Erv Zaretsky demonstrates bearing testing for center’s Youth Days open house in August 1962.. NASA Erwin Zaretsky, William Anderson, and Richard Parker received awards from the NASA Inventions and Contributions Board for developing a method to improve the life and reliability of contact bearings. NASA Erv Zaretsky with the ASME distinguished service award for advancing the engineering profession (1972). NASA Erv Zaretsky and Bill Anderson with the NASA Five-Ball Fatigue Tester in 1977. NASA Erv Zaretsky examines components of a helicopter transmission in September 1981.NASA Erwin Zaretsky, Romualdas Kasuvba, John J. Coy with various gear technology in 1995. NASA Erv Zaretsky and fellow Distinguished Research Associate Bob Hendricks in 2007. NASA Reva and Erv Zaretsky at the 2015 Glenn Hall of Fame ceremony. NASAView the full article

Citation Dr. Lonnie Reid is nationally recognized for his knowledge of internal flow in advanced aerospace propulsion systems. His long history of integrating the theoretical and experimental elements of fluid dynamics resulted in an expanded database of compressor and fan design. He was the first African American at the center to be appointed to the Senior Executive Service (in 1990) and became chief of the Internal Fluid Mechanics Division. Dr. Reid retired in 1994 with 32 years of NASA service and a legacy of mentoring the next generation of scientists and engineers. Biography Lonnie Reid is nationally recognized in turbomachinery for his knowledge of internal flow in advanced aerospace propulsion systems. He has a long history of integrating the theoretical and experimental elements of fluid dynamics work to expand the database of compressor and fan design. He has not only demonstrated excellent leadership skills in several positions, including as chief of the Internal Fluid Mechanics Division, but has been influential in recruiting and mentoring the next generation of scientists and engineers. Lonnie Reid was born on September 5, 1935, in Gastonia, North Carolina. After serving in the U.S. Army, he earned a mechanical engineering degree from Tennessee State University. He joined the NASA Lewis Research Center as a research engineer shortly after graduating in 1961 and spent the next 20 years as both a researcher and manager in the Compressor Section of the Fluid Systems Components Division. In the early 1960s the group focused on improving the performance of high-speed turbopumps that pumped cryogenic propellants in space vehicles. The pumping of liquid hydrogen in near-boiling conditions, referred to as “cavitation,” was a particular concern. The fluids systems researchers improved pump designs and demonstrated the ability to pump hydrogen in cavitating conditions. These were key contributions to the success of the Centaur and Saturn upper-stage rockets. In 1966, NASA Lewis reorganized its staff to address new aviation issues resulting from plans for a supersonic transport aircraft and the influx of jet airliners. Both areas raised concerns about noise, pollution and efficiency. In the fall of 1966 Reid was one of seven Lewis employees appointed to the U.S. Supersonic Transport Source Selection Evaluation Group. In this role he evaluated industry proposals for fans and compressors for the planned supersonic transport. At the time, Reid also undertook a long-term effort to improve the design of transonic fans and compressors. By analyzing blade shapes, rotor tip speeds, and flow physics, Reid and his colleagues were able to increase engine efficiency and performance. Rickey Shyne, Glenn’s director of research and engineering, stated, “Dr. Reid’s research [led]… to the expansion and furtherance of the experimental database on the NACA 0012 series compressor blades which served for decades as an industry ‘gold’ standard for compressor and fan analysts and designers.” In 1972 Reid earned his master’s degree in mechanical engineering from the University of Toledo, and in 1978 he was named head of the Fan and Compressor Branch’s Multi-Stage Compressor Section. During this period the section supported the Supersonic Cruise Research effort by analyzing the aerodynamic designs of fan and compressor components and managing the program’s basic technology elements. In 1980 he became head of the Small Compressor Section. In the mid-1980s, the center attempted to return its Altitude Wind Tunnel (which had been converted into two space chambers in the early 1960s) to service to support advanced icing research. Reid was named head of the Aerodynamics Section in the AWT Project Office in 1984. There he directed the complex physical and computer-modeling program used to determine if the new tunnel components would meet the design requirements. Although funding for the AWT effort was cut, Reid and his team enhanced the performance of the tunnel components and developed flow-modeling tools that have been subsequently applied to the design and improvement of other NASA wind tunnels. Reid was named chief of the Computational Applications Branch in 1986. His branch applied computational fluid dynamics codes to the design of engine components and verified the codes with physical testing. The following year Reid was appointed head of the Turbomachinery Technology Branch, where he managed the turbomachinery flow physics research for a wide range of aircraft. Reid and his engineers also developed the first supersonic through-flow fan design for turbofan engines. The device allowed the size and weight of turbofan engines to be reduced while offering competitive performance at supersonic cruise speeds. In 1989 Reid earned his Ph.D. from the University of Toledo, studying three-dimensional flows near the wall in transonic compressors. In 1989 Dr. Reid was promoted to chief of the Internal Fluids Mechanics Division and appointed to the Senior Executive Service. He was the first African-American employee at the center to achieve either position. As division chief, he worked closely with industry to facilitate technology transfer, identify areas of turbomachinery and flow physics that required research, and ensure that the division addressed those concerns. He retired in October 1993 with 32 years of NASA service. Dr. Reid returned to the center to work as a contractor for 5 years. In 1998 he founded AP Solutions, Inc., to provide NASA’s computational fluid dynamic code designers with technical expertise to support aeropropulsion work. The company has supported the Ultra Efficient Engine Technology program, the General Aviation Program, and the development of the Joint Strike Fighter. In addition to his technical and managerial accomplishments, Dr. Reid has a long legacy of mentoring local students and recruiting young engineers for the center. In addition, he served as a role model for many young employees who have gone on to successful careers at NASA and in academia. Dr. Reid promoted positive morale through leadership of a variety of activities such as charity drives, educational outreach, diversity awareness, and wellness activities. Dr. Reid has received many awards throughout his career, including NASA’s Exceptional Service Medal in 1989, Senior Executive Service in 1990, and induction into the Ohio Science, Technology and Industry Hall of Fame in 2003. He has lectured at several universities and served as a consultant on several boards and committees. Dr. Reid’s long and distinguished NASA career epitomizes his commitment to excellence. He has left an enduring legacy in the field of turbomachinery and with a generation of engineers who have benefited from his technical knowledge and his personal interest in their success. Related Documents Reid Articles (1966-2006) Reid Superstars of Science Bio (1998) Reid Tapped for Ohio Science Hall of Fame (1993) Reid AP Solutions Biography (2019) Photographs Lonnie Reid examines a high Mach No. compressor for supersonic aircraft (11/1/1966). NASA Harrison Allen and Lonnie Reid discuss minority involvement with NASA (1976). NASA Lonnie Reid checks an experimental compressor (8/31/1979). NASA Lonnie Reid at work in his office in the Engine Research Building (1979).NASA Lonnie Reid with gas turbine research equipment in the Engine Research Building (1992).NASA Reid and John Adamczyk review software for new Lewis Incubator program (2/3/1999). NASA After retiring, Reid returned to NASA to participate in a town hall meeting on agency culture change (7/27/2004). NASA Lonnie Reid with colleagues at a Historically Black Colleges event in July 2011.NASAView the full article

Citation Dr. R. Lynn Bondurant began his career at the NASA Lewis Research Center in 1981 to direct the newly established Office of Educational Programs. His creative leadership and passion for science education laid the foundation for our continuing excellence in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) outreach and inspired a whole generation of youth to pursue careers in science. He was a tireless educator who wrote numerous articles and books on STEM education topics, presented over 70 NASA television programs, and brought a clear vision of a successful STEM outreach program to the Center. Biography Bondurant earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in biology from Park College in Missouri, a Master of Arts degree in zoology from Indiana University and a doctorate in curriculum and secondary education from Michigan State University. Before coming to the center he held a number of positions that helped him bring a unique perspective and broad experience in STEM education. He had been a curriculum coordinator, planetarium director, high school biology teacher, education officer at the Smithsonian Institution and a junior high school principal. In February 1981 Dr. Bondurant became the new chief of the Office of Educational Programs. Until that point, the center’s educational outreach was spread out across varying organizations and lacked focus. Under his leadership, the educational department was revitalized and creative programming was developed that paved the way for the robust outreach programs that we have today. In his role he was responsible for the visitor’s center, speaker’s bureau, Educator Resource Center and student internship programs, but his enthusiasm and dedication to the outreach mission went well beyond simply managing the program. He personally presented talks, designed and led workshops for students and educators, and developed innovative programs and learning experiences. One of these was the “Sky as Your Classroom” workshop—which included a simulated “shuttle mission” that immersed two classrooms of students in months of mission planning and then an actual 4-hour, 60-mile journey in a bus outfitted like a shuttle, where the students executed their mission plan. Dr. Bondurant also collaborated with WVIZ to create and host a television program called, “Touching Tomorrow.” This was a four-part series with the aim to spark student interest in math and science. It was unique in its interactive format where teachers could call in with questions. He said of the show, “A fascination with space today may lead to a career or life-long interest in math or science tomorrow.” What we know today as the “Journey To Tomorrow” traveling exhibits trailer began as his brainchild—the Mobile Aeronautics Education Laboratory (MAEL). The trailer was completed in 1996 in partnership with Cuyahoga Community College (Tri-C) to support aero education programs for high school students enrolled in the Science, Engineering, Mathematics, and Aerospace Academy (SEMMA) sponsored by the center and Tri-C. Dr. Bondurant met constantly with local officials and educational partners on how the center could best serve the area’s and region’s students. In addition, he was a strong ally of special needs students in STEM. He was a key player in advocating for the first group of special needs students to attend Space Camp (a story that was turned into a made-for-TV movie on the Hallmark Channel in 2012). He was also behind the first captioning of a NASA film for the hearing impaired and the translation of several NASA publications into braille. He has been awarded numerous times for his many contributions to leadership and creativity in educational outreach. In 1984 he was awarded the NASA Exceptional Service Medal—for outstanding initiative and service that have made the center a recognized leader in creative, dynamic cooperation with the educational community and produced a strong positive impact on science education in primary and secondary schools. Then in 1995, he was awarded the NASA Outstanding Leadership Medal for exceptional leadership in creating educational programs that had significantly impacted the educational community while enhancing the visibility and prestige of the center. After over 20 years of government service, Dr. Bondurant retired in December 1999. In retirement he continued to be involved in many educational initiatives, including serving as the director of education for the X Prize Foundation. Related Documents Articles Written by Bondurant (1990) Bondurant Biographical Data (c1985) Lynn Bondurant articles (1981-2003) Stars and Asteroids Forever article (1992) Photographs Lynn Bondurant in February 1981, shortly after joining NASA Lewis. NASA Bondurant and others at the National History Museum (10/2/1981). NASA Lynn Bondurant discusses the Student Space Shuttle Involvement Project (3/28/1983). NASA Bondurant helps dedicate NASA Teacher’s Resource Room at St. Cloud University (1984). NASA Lynn Bondurant in his office (1990). NASA Lynn Bondurant with John Hairston, Director of External Programs, in front of the Mobile Aerospace Education Lab (1996). NASA Deputy Director Marla Perez-Davis congratulates Lynn Bondurant on his induction (9/14/2016). NASAView the full article

Citation THE GIANTS OF HEAT TRANSFER: DR. ROBERT DEISSLER, DR. SIMON OSTRACH, AND DR. ROBERT SIEGEL The NASA Glenn Research Center established itself as a hub of heat transfer expertise early in its history, when it was a National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA) laboratory. Rooted in basic, instead of applied, research, a group of the lab’s heat transfer researchers developed new theories that would transform the body of knowledge. As Virginia Dawson explains in her history of the Center, Engines and Innovations, “A new theory was like a new piece of hardware, something on the shelf, ready if it was needed in the future.” Management was more comfortable with a new compressor or afterburner, but the value of theoretical contributions was also appreciated. The theoretical skills of these heat transfer experts made them world renown in their own right, and the application of their theories helped the Center to expand and excel in emerging fields like jet engines, nuclear propulsion, and space exploration. Biography Robert Deissler began his broad heat transfer career in 1947 at the NACA Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory, which would later become NASA Glenn. He gained early recognition in the field for a series of papers dealing with turbulent flow and heat transfer of variable-property fluids in pipes or tubes. He quickly advanced to chief of the Heat Transfer Branch. Deissler was recognized as a major contributor to the theory of turbulent-flow heat transfer, and he authored many papers and articles, as well as an authoritative text book, on the subject. In 1957 he received the Exceptional Service Award from the NACA for his contributions to the understanding of heat transfer problems associated with aircraft nuclear propulsion. Among his numerous other honors, Deissler received the Max Jakob Memorial Award in 1975 from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and American Institute for Chemical Engineering AICE for the prestigious achievement of distinguished service in the area of heat transfer. He was honored as an ASME fellow in 1977 and as an American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) fellow in 1982. He retired in 1994 and passed away on August 16, 2015. Related Documents Robert Deissler Articles (1951-99) Deissler and Lieblein Exceptional Service Awards(1957) Analysis of Heat Transfer and Fluid Friction for Turbulent Flow (1953) Turbulent Solutions of Equations of Fluid Motion (1985) Photographs Robert Deissler with family members after receiving the NACA’s Distinguished Service Award (10/28/1957). NASA NACA Director Hugh Dryden presents Robert Deissler with Distinguished Service Award (10/28/1957).NASA Deissler meets with German exchange student Ulrich Rombusch in July 1959. NASA Larry Ross (left) presents Robert Deissler with a Forty-Five-Year Service Emblem during the 1991 Honor Awards ceremony with Administrator Richard Truly on the right.NASAView the full article

Citation THE GIANTS OF HEAT TRANSFER: DR. ROBERT DEISSLER, DR. SIMON OSTRACH, AND DR. ROBERT SIEGEL The NASA Glenn Research Center established itself as a hub of heat transfer expertise early in its history, when it was a National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA) laboratory. Rooted in basic, instead of applied, research, a group of the lab’s heat transfer researchers developed new theories that would transform the body of knowledge. As Virginia Dawson explains in her history of the Center, Engines and Innovations, “A new theory was like a new piece of hardware, something on the shelf, ready if it was needed in the future.” Management was more comfortable with a new compressor or afterburner, but the value of theoretical contributions was also appreciated. The theoretical skills of these heat transfer experts made them world renown in their own right, and the application of their theories helped the Center to expand and excel in emerging fields like jet engines, nuclear propulsion, and space exploration. Biography When Simon Ostrach began his career in 1944 at the Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory, he was working on engine cooling problems for World War II aircraft. After the war, he performed thermodynamic analyses on turbojet and turboprop engines. In 1947 Ostrach’s branch chief nominated him for a predoctoral fellowship at Brown University. Upon receiving the award, Ostrach decided to pursue a fluids heat transfer problem for his thesis, even though he had no formal heat transfer training. Unlike most of his contemporaries, Ostrach employed deductive logic to resolve the problem. When Ostrach returned to the Laboratory in 1949, he expected to be placed in the Thermodynamics Division. Instead, he was assigned to the Special Projects Division. In the mid-1950s Associate Director Abe Silverstein created a four-person Applied Mechanics Group (Ostrach, Stephen Maslen, Frank Moore, and Harold Mirels). The team would work on special research issues as well as pursue their own basic research investigations. Ostrach expanded on his work at Brown in the new field of fluid flows generated by buoyancy. Encouraged by colleague Ernst Eckert, Ostrach was able to convince Director of Research Abe Silverstein of the usefulness of the research by couching it in terms of water-cooled turbine blades for jet engines. Buoyancy-driven flow stems from the difference in density between two liquids that are subjected to gravitational forces. Although heat is considered the primary driver of fluid motion, Ostrach demonstrated that viscous dissipation increases flow velocities in the same way that heat does. The knowledge gained through Ostrach’s research has enabled the development of technologies for producing crystals for semiconductors and for producing microelectromechanical (MEM) devices. Ostrach also designed major experiments that flew aboard the space shuttle in 1992 and 1995. These provided significant insight for developing life-support systems for space and for processing materials on Earth. Ostrach also was the creator and widely quoted proponent of the concept known as Research for Design, or R4D, which encourages corporate and academic researchers to work together and to employ a more direct approach to performing research that keeps near-term applications in mind. Ostrach later wrote, “I have obtained a great deal of personal satisfaction in working in this field, but my greatest pleasure has come from the acceptance of me and my work by the heat transfer community and the many wonderful friends that I have as a result.” After leaving NASA in 1960, Ostrach was a professor and researcher at the Case Western Reserve University for 60 years. He is now the Wilbert Austin Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Engineering at Case. At the age of 91, his current focus is on the behavior of fluids in zero gravity and on how flows are induced and affected by various forces. Ostrach passed away in October 2017. Related Documents Ostrach Biographical Sketch (1987) Simon Ostrach Articles (1947-60) Ostrach Post-NASA Articles (1973-2002) Ostrach Technical Bibliography Superstars of Modern Aeronautics (1998) Ostrach on the Occasion of His Retirement (2007) Ostrach, NASA Superstar and CWRU Researcher (2017) Photographs Visit by Lakshama I Srinvasan and V.N. Rayudu Gogineni India teachers of engineering and candidates for masters degrees at Cornell.NASA Lewis researchers Harold Mirels, Franklin Moore, Stephen Maslen, and Simon Ostrach celebrating Maslen’s induction into the National Academy of Engineering in September 1987.NASA Si Ostrach experiencing a few moments of microgravity onboard Lewis’ DC-9 (5/25/1996). NASA Si Ostrach sits in the cockpit of Lewis’ DC-9 during microgravity research flights (1996). NASA Si Ostrach signing poster at the Superstars of Modern Aeronautics event (10/9/1998). NASA Administrator Dan Goldin (left) and Spence Armstrong honor Si Ostrach as one of NASA’s Superstars of Modern Aeronautics (10/9/1998).NASA Si Ostrach, Wiiliam Meyer, Lee Morin, R. Balasubremaniam, Rainee Simons, and Bhim Singh (11/30/2000).NASA NASA Administrator Sean O’Keefe talks with Simon Ostrach in January 2002.NASAView the full article

Citation Over his 40-year career, Dr. Julian M. Earls helped to shape the center in a number of areas. He began his career in 1965 as a physicist and quickly established himself as a leader in health physics and radiology, authoring NASA’s first-ever health-physics guides. Dr. Earls was a champion of equal opportunity and the first African American to hold many leadership positions at the center. He rose to the ranks of center director in 2003, where his energy and leadership elevated the center’s presence in the agency and region. Dr. Earls retired in 2005. Biography Julian Earls began his career at the center as a physicist, and he rose through the ranks to become the ninth center director of the NASA Glenn Research Center. Along the way he authored numerous technical papers, earned 10 university degrees, mentored students and colleagues, championed equal opportunity, and was often recognized for his exceptional leadership and unparalleled public speaking abilities. Earls was born in Virginia and earned his bachelor’s degree in physics from Norfolk State University in 1964. He went on to earn his master’s degree in radiation biology in 1965 from the Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry. In the same year he came to the NASA Lewis Research Center as a physicist in the health-physics program. Early on he established himself as a leader in the field of health physics. In 1968 he became head of the Health Physics and Licensing section of the Nuclear Systems Division as well as the Radiological Safety Officer. He authored numerous technical papers and NASA’s first health-physics guides. In 1972 he earned both a doctorate in public health in radiation physics as well as the equivalent of a master’s of public health in environmental health from the University of Michigan, while also serving as the chief of the center’s Environmental Health Office. Dr. Earls was a trailblazer for diversity. Over the course of his career he was the center’s first African American section head, office chief, division chief and deputy director. In addition to serving as a role model, he was committed to empowering others to prepare, seek and excel in new opportunities. His career is noted not only for technical achievements, but also for generous mentorship of employees and students. He actively served on and led center equal opportunity initiatives as well as dozens of community organizations that encouraged young minorities. He was elected into the inaugural class of the National Black College Alumni Hall of Fame with such distinguished individuals as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and Justice Thurgood Marshall. Dr. Earls is the founder of the Development Fund for Black Students in Science and Technology—an endowment that raises scholarships for black students who major in technical disciplines at historically black colleges. In 1979 he completed the elite Professional Managerial Diploma course at the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration and continued his trajectory through the executive ranks. In 1983 he became chief of the Health, Safety, and Security Division, and in 1988 he was promoted to director of the Office of Health Services. His leadership skills were applied in other areas of the center as he filled new roles in business development, computer services and operations. In 2002 he was selected as the center deputy director and was responsible for the overall management of the center’s organizational objectives, direction and resource allocation. It was not long before he was appointed as the center director by Administrator Sean O’Keefe in 2003. In his nearly two years as center director, Dr. Earls brought a style of leadership that combined enthusiasm, humility and humor. Relationships that he built over his career spanned involvement and commitment to the Greater Cleveland community to elevate Glenn’s presence in the region and to help the center navigate difficult times. He was awarded numerous times in the community for his contributions and leadership. Dr. Earls is the recipient of the NASA Exceptional Achievement Medal and NASA Outstanding Leadership Medal and has received the Presidential Rank Award for Meritorious Service twice. He also has been presented with honorary degrees from multiple universities. Dr. Earls ended his 40-year NASA career with his retirement in December 2005. Since that time, he has served as the Cleveland State University Executive in Residence—continuing to mentor and inspire students. He remains active in numerous community endeavors and is a tireless advocate for education. He also is the president of Entrepreneurial Engagement Ohio. Related Documents Earls Biographical Sketches (1995-2003) Earls Center Director Biography (2023) Earls Newsletter Articles (1972-96) Earls Newspaper Articles (2001-06) Earls Interview by Rebecca Wright (2006) Photographs Julian Earls at his desk (2/25/1976). NASA Julian Earls and Bell McCoy (seated) are joined by Craig Strong, Richard Carosso, Jerry Seppelt, and William Simon (1977). NASA Julian Earls with model of Apollo capsule in the Visitors Information Center (7/20/1977). NASA Julian Earls at his desk (10/5/1982). NASA Julian Earls with aircraft models in the Visitors Information Center (1989)NASA Julian Earls (3/2/1993).NASA Julian Earls in the Visitors Information Center (1996).NASA Julian Earls addresses the 2004 Honor Awards attendees. NASAView the full article

Citation Annie Easley began her career in 1955 as a human “computer.” When machines replaced people, she evolved along with them, becoming a computer programmer. She developed and tested code and analyzed data for a variety of research areas, including alternative energy, battery storage, and the Centaur launch vehicle. In addition to her professional achievements, as one of the first African-American employees, Annie Easley was a pioneer for females and minorities in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) careers. She was a champion for equality for all throughout her career. Biography Annie Easley had never heard of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) when she read an article about twin sisters who were “human computers” at the Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory in Cleveland, Ohio. The Lab (the predecessor of the NASA Glenn Research Center) was in need of people with strong math skills, and she was in need of a job after recently relocating from Birmingham, Alabama. Two weeks after reading the article, Easley began a career that would span 34 years. She would contribute to numerous programs as a computer scientist, inspire many through her enthusiastic participation in outreach programs, break down barriers for women and people of color in science, technology, engineering, and mathematic (STEM) fields, and win the admiration and respect of her coworkers. In 1955, Easley began her career as a “human computer,” doing computations for researchers. This involved analyzing problems and doing calculations by hand. Her earliest work involved running simulations for the newly planned Plum Brook Reactor Facility. When hired, she was one of only four African-American employees at the Lab. In a 2001 interview she said that she had never set out to be a pioneer. “I just have my own attitude. I’m out here to get the job done, and I knew I had the ability to do it, and that’s where my focus was.” Even in the face of discrimination, she persevered. “My head is not in the sand. But my thing is, if I can’t work with you, I will work around you. I was not about to be [so] discouraged that I’d walk away. That may be a solution for some people, but it’s not mine.” When human computers were replaced by machines, Easley evolved along with the technology. She became an adept computer programmer, using languages like the Formula Translating System (Fortran) and the Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program (SOAP) to support a number of NASA’s programs. She developed and implemented code used in researching energy-conversion systems, analyzing alternative power technology—including the battery technology that was used for early hybrid vehicles, as well as for the Centaur upper-stage rocket. In the 1970s, Easley returned to school to earn her degree in mathematics from Cleveland State, doing much of her coursework while also working full time. A firm believer in education and in her mother’s advice “You can be anything you want to be, but you have to work at it,” Easley was very dedicated in her outreach efforts at NASA. She not only participated in school tutoring programs but was a very active participant in the speaker’s bureau—telling students about NASA’s work and inspiring especially female and minority students to consider STEM careers. Later in her career, she took on the additional role of equal employment opportunity (EEO) counselor. In this role she helped supervisors address issues of gender, race, and age in discrimination complaints at the lowest level and in the most cooperative way possible. Less formally, she helped pave the way for women’s rights at the center when she and her room supervisor made a pact to wear pantsuits the following day. Again, from her 2001 interview, “…it did cause quite a stir, but there was one woman who said, ‘I was just waiting for the first one to wear pants.’ You know, we took the emphasis off [of] what you’re wearing. It’s more like what you’re actually producing.” A Lewis News article quoted one of Easley’s coworkers as saying, “She loves life and encourages others to do the same.” In addition to her technical and outreach activities, Easley was a champion of employee morale. She was a founding member of the Ski Club and was very active in the annual children’s Christmas play, Center athletics, and the Business & Professional Women’s association. Easley would humbly state that she never set out to be a role model or trailblazer. Many who knew her would say that it was not just the work that she did that made a difference; it was her energy and positive attitude that had a tremendous impact on the center. In the 35-page transcript of her 2001 NASA oral history interview, Easley consistently emphasizes the importance of teamwork and expresses appreciation and admiration for those she worked with. There are many illustrations throughout her career of her determination and discipline, kindness, and generosity. Easley retired in 1989, but she remained an active participant in the Speaker’s Bureau and the Business & Professional Women’s association. Annie Easley passed away on June 25, 2011. Related Documents Easley Oral History by Sandra Johnson (2001) Annie Easley Articles (1955-2018) Easley Science Engineering article (1982) Annie Easley was Human Computer articles (2017) Easley Bio by Physics Today (2018) Meet Annie Easley article (2018) Photographs Annie Easley receives Special Achievement Award from Director of Administration Henry Barnett (left) and Deputy Director Gene Manganiello (6/30/1970). NASA Mathematician Annie Easley at work (1972). NASA Annie Easley monitors Lewis’ UNIVAC 1100/40 which was used for analytical and business data processing (2/25/1976).NASA Annie Easley in the Engine Research Building’s Central Control Room (1981). NASA Annie Easley was a long time member of Lewis’ Ski Club (1981).NASA Annie Easley in her office in the Development Engineering Building (1981). NASA Annie Easley with a visiting student in Lewis’ Visitor Information Center (7/31/1981). NASA Annie Easley photographed in her kitchen for a feature story in Science and Engineering (1981). NASAView the full article

Citation Olga González-Sanabria contributed to the development of nickel-hydrogen battery technologies, most notably in the area of battery separators, and the study of energy storage options for radioisotope thermoelectric generators. González-Sanabria also served as a liaison to NASA Headquarters for the center’s in-space technologies activities. In 1995 she became the center’s first Latina to enter the senior executive service. González-Sanabria held several executive positions at the center, culminating in Director of Engineering. In each of these positions, González-Sanabria implemented novel approaches to her wide range of institutional and managerial responsibilities. Biography Olga González-Sanabria developed a fondness for chemistry and math while growing up in Patillas, Puerto Rico. She became interested in engineering at a career day in high school—chemical engineering, in particular, because of the 1970s energy crisis. She was one of only a few women studying engineering at the University of Puerto Rico. After earning her bachelor’s degree in chemical engineering in 1978, González-Sanabria accepted a position at the NASA Lewis Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio. She earned her master’s degree in chemical engineer from the University of Toledo in 1985. González-Sanabria began her NASA career in 1979 researching energy storage technologies for space in the Electrochemistry Branch of the Solar and Electrochemistry Division. She and her colleagues worked to advance nickel—hydrogen fuel cells, a new type of battery that offered improved performance. They made key advances in improving the separators that isolate oxidation and reduce voltage losses. She contributed to over 30 technical papers and is the co-patentee on a separator technology for alkaline batteries. In 1988 she was part of a group that received an R&D 100 award for long cycle-life nickel—hydrogen batteries. As part of the Energy Storage Branch in the mid-1980s, González-Sanabria analyzed advanced nickel-hydrogen battery designs and advances. She also collaborated with Patricia O’Donnell and Robert Cataldo to study various battery and fuel cell options for radioisotope thermoelectric generators to power potential Mars rovers. In 1990, González-Sanabria moved into the Space Experiments Division’s In-Space Technology Branch which designed experiments requiring testing in space. She served as the group’s liaison to the Headquarters Office of Aeronautics and Space Technologies. In 1993 she was awarded the Exceptional Service Medal for her outstanding development and coordination work in this capacity. González-Sanabria officially transitioned from research to management in 1995 with her appointment as the center’s executive officer. She was responsible for assisting the center director in planning, organizing, and managing the center’s institutional and technical programs. In this role, she helped guide the center through the tumultuous reductions and reorganization that resulted from the agency’s Zero Base Review. From 1998 to 2002 González-Sanabria headed the Plans and Programs Office. She was responsible for ensuring that the center’s research programs, plans, and policies aligned with agency objectives. In 2000 she coordinated the first Center Performance Review to measure the center’s effectiveness in meeting agency goals. She also led the center’s effort to establish ISO 9000 certification. In 2002, González-Sanabria was appointed to Senior Executive Service (SES) and put in charge of the Systems Management Office. She was the first Latina at the Center to receive an SES designation. The Systems Management Office was established in 2000 to implement the agency’s new Program and Project Management Processes and Requirements policy. In 2002 she received the Outstanding Leadership Medal. In 2003 she was inducted into the Ohio Women’s Hall of Fame for her technical achievements and being a leading professional Hispanic. In 2007 she was awarded the Presidential Rank of Meritorious Executive for her leadership in integrated engineering services and the Hispanic Engineer National Achievement Awards Conference’s Executive Excellence Award. González-Sanabria was named director of Engineering and Technical Services in 2004. The directorate was responsible for the center’s engineering design, fabrication, facility management, and systems engineering. Following a reorganization in 2008, González-Sanabria served as director of the new Engineering Directorate. The directorate offered a new approach to organizing engineering services. González-Sanabria retired in December 2011 with 32 years of NASA service. In addition to her professional accomplishments, González-Sanabria was an active mentor, for both students and mid-career professionals. Related Documents González-Sanabria bios Gonzales-Sanabria articles (1980-2012) Two NASA Employees Join Ohio Women’s Hall of Fame (2003) Photographs Olga Gonzalez-Sanabria at work in her Electrochemistry Branch office (1982). NASA Olga Gonzalez-Sanabria in laboratory (1985). NASA Michelle Manzo and Olga Gonzalez-Sanabria demonstrate battery construction (1988).NASA Larry Thaller, Michelle Manzo, John Smithrick, and Gonzalez-Sanabria pose for their for “Long Cycle Life Nickel-Hydrogen Battery” R&D 100 award (1988). NASA Gonzalez-Sanabri, then Director of Engineering, in her office (2003). NASA Gonzalez-Sanabria and husband Raphael pose for magazine feature (2003).NASA Gonzalez-Sanabria addressed the Commercial Space Transportation Workshop in February 2011.NASA Gonzalez-Sanabria speaks at Engineering Directorate picnic in August 2011. NASAView the full article

Citation Dr. Harold Kaufman began his career at the center in 1951 and developed and tested the first electron-bombardment ion thruster in 1959. The Space Electric Rocket Tests (SERT I and II) used Kaufman’s ion engine in the first successful demonstration of electric propulsion in space and confirmed the technology for long-duration spaceflights. Dr. Kaufman’s research revolutionized the exploration of deep space, becoming the basis for ion propulsion systems that are in use today and planned for future NASA deep space missions. Dr. Kaufman retired from NASA in 1974 and became a professor at Colorado State University. Biography Center researcher Harold Kaufman has the rare distinction of inventing an experimental spaceflight hardware system that has not only been demonstrated in testing but is being flown in space today. In the early 1960s Kaufman developed the electron bombardment ion thruster. All ensuing U.S. ion propulsion systems have been derived from his original Kaufman thruster, and electric propulsion remains one of the center’s core competencies. After retiring from NASA, Dr. Kaufman adapted the technology for a number of Earth applications and developed a gridless thruster that has become another industry standard. Kaufman was born in Audobon, Iowa, in 1926 but was raised in Evanston, Illinois. He was trained as an electrical engineer in the Navy during World War II. After the war, however, he decided to pursue a mechanical engineering degree at Northwestern University. He joined the NACA Lewis Research Center shortly after graduating in 1951, initially working on aeropropulsion issues such as afterburner cooling and the experimental use of liquid hydrogen in jet engines. Following the Soviet Union’s launch of Sputnik in 1957, the NACA became a part of the new NASA space agency, and the center reorganized to focus on space-related issues. Electric propulsion involved ion thrusters, which create charged plasma and expel it as thrust. The concept was not new, but it had yet to be demonstrated when NASA Lewis took up the effort in 1958. Lewis devised mission applications for such a thruster, began constructing vacuum test facilities, and formed the Electromagnetic Propulsion Division to explore a range of different types of electric propulsion for spaceflight. In 1958 Kaufman was reassigned to the new Electromagnetic Propulsion Division. He was initially instructed to design a thruster using a Manfred Von Ardenne-designed duoplasmatron but quickly realized that it was impractical. He began work on his own duoplasmatron, which was similar in nature, but used different proportions. Kaufman spent the next year studying plasma physics and ways to produce high electrical currents at low voltage. After some trial and error with the Lewis Machine Shop, Kaufman decided to design the thruster himself. The electronic bombardment thruster (Kaufman thruster) emerged. Kaufman’s engine vaporized liquid mercury, which was then bombarded by electrons to create more electrons and ions. A negatively charged electric field and a positively charged screen drew the ions rearward and out of the engine as thrust. The thruster was tested extensively in Lewis vacuum facilities with excellent results. In 1960 Kaufman and his colleagues began planning the Space Electric Rocket Test (SERT I) to test the thruster in space. The SERT I spacecraft, which was launched in July 1964, also included an alternative style thruster designed at the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center. Kaufman’s thruster operated for over 30 minutes, but the Marshall engine failed to activate. SERT I provided the first demonstration of electric propulsion in space. In 1964 Kaufman was named head of the Ion Physics Branch and began planning a second space demonstration of his thruster, SERT II. SERT II employed two solar-powered mercury ion bombardment thrusters. Lewis subjected the thrusters to an array of tests, including long-duration performance. Although SERT II’s initial mission, which was launched in February 1970, did not meet its intended 6-month duration, engineers were able to restart the engines in 1973. They then were able to operate the thrusters for eight years and restart them hundreds of times. During this period the Electromagnetic Propulsion Division not only improved the ion acceleration, generation, efficiency, and life expectancy for Kaufman’s thruster, but developed alternative electric thrusters. Kaufman was named assistant chief of the division in 1968 and earned a Ph.D. at Colorado State University (CSU) in 1971. Dr. Kaufman and his thruster were widely recognized during this period. The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) awarded him the James H. Wyld Propulsion Award in 1969, the thruster won an IR 100 award (predecessor to the R&D 100 Awards) in 1970, and Kaufman received NASA’s Exceptional Service Award in 1971. NASA’s budget was rapidly decreasing in the late 1960s and early 1970s, particularly for programs with long development periods—such as electric propulsion. The Electromagnetic Propulsion Division was disbanded during a 1972 reorganization. After serving two years as assistant chief of the new Spacecraft Technology Division, in which electric propulsion was just one of several branches, Dr. Kaufman retired in June 1974 with 23 years of NASA experience. Dr. Kaufman subsequently accepted a faculty post in the Physics and Mechanical Engineering departments at CSU and returned to research. He later commented, “I am proud that after being a manager for 15 years, I was still competent enough to go back and do work myself.” He served as chair of the Physics Department from 1978 until his retirement in 1984. During his academic career, Dr. Kaufman became aware that others were exploring alternative applications for ion bombardment technology. He accepted an invitation from IBM to modify the electron beam for thin-film applications. The near-term development of the technology excited him. He later claimed to have averaged a patent per week for the first two months. A colleague asserted that Dr. Kaufman has the most patents of anyone in the IBM Corporation. Dr. Kaufman used his ion sources for processes like etching and sputtering. The Kaufman ion source is now also used for other applications, such as the ion implanters used in semiconductor processing After retiring from CSU, Dr. Kaufman formed Kaufman & Robinson, Inc., to continue his work, which included the invention of the end-Hall ion source, which is the basis for most gridless ion sources used in industry today. Dr. Kaufman is currently professor emeritus for CSU in Fort Collins, Colorado, and runs Kaufman and Robinson, Inc. Meanwhile, NASA researchers have continued to advance the Kaufman thruster design for space propulsion. This eventually led to a 1990s NASA Lewis collaboration with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to develop the NASA Solar Electric Power Technology Application Readiness (NSTAR) thruster. NASA used the NSTAR thrusters to power its Deep Space I spacecraft in 1998. It was the first spacecraft to use ion thrusters as its primary propulsion system. The NSTAR also powered the 2007 Dawn spacecraft, which is currently exploring large objects in the asteroid belt. The center has since developed an even more powerful version—NASA’s Evolutionary Xenon Thruster (NEXT). All were derived from Kaufman’s invention from the early 1960s. Kaufman’s ion thruster is one of the most influential and far-reaching technologies to ever come out of the center. With roots in Kaufman’s work, Glenn researchers continue to refine this technology and develop the next generation of long-duration spaceflight capabilities. Dr. Harold Kaufman passed away in January 2018. Related Documents Biographical Sketch of Kaufman (1974) Harold Kaufman Articles (1966-71) Kaufman Thruster Development (1971) Kaufman Thruster Award release (1970) Kaufman Biography and Interview (1991) Oral History with Harold Kaufman (1991) Photographs Harold Kaufman with a model of the SERT II spacecraft (8/16/1971).NASA Harold Kaufman hosts T.L. Britton and J.P. Laviolette from Avro’s Orenda Engines (8/16/1956 ). NASA Researcher Harold Kaufman poses with his ion thruster in the Electric Propulsion Laboratory. NASA Harold Kaufman works with colleagues to assembly an electron bombardment thruster (1961). NASA Harold Kaufman poses with his electron bombardment thruster. NASA Harold Kaufman and Ted Olson (right) meet with Gunther Au from the German Aerospace Center (3/13/1969). NASA Kaufman examines a model of the SERT II, which was powered by ion engines (1971). NASA Harold Kaufman and D. Byers host French engineer R.B. Becherer (center) in May 1974. NASAView the full article

Citation Dr. Heinrich “Henry” Kosmahl was an internationally recognized pioneer in the advancement of traveling wave tube technology for satellite communications systems. His invention and development of the multistage depressed collector revolutionized microwave tube amplifiers by nearly doubling efficiency and enabling access to previously impenetrable regions of the electromagnetic spectrum and the satellite communications infrastructure. The improved devices became a standard component of nearly all NASA and industry communications satellites. Under Kosmahl, the center became a leader in space communications. Biography Dr. Heinrich “Henry” Kosmahl revolutionized the field of microwave tube amplifiers through the development and continual refinement of the multistage depressed collector. Kosmahl’s work has been internationally recognized internationally and led to the emergence of the Glenn Research Center as a leader in space communications. Kosmahl was born in 1919 in Wartha, Germany. He earned a degree from the University of Dresden in 1943 and a doctorate from the University of Darmstadt in 1949, where he was an assistant professor in 1949 and 1950. He then worked as a research physicist from 1950 to 1956. Kosmahl emigrated to the United States in 1956 as Cold War tensions escalated across Central Europe. Kosmahl joined NASA’s Lewis Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio in 1963 as a member of the Space Technology Division’s Electromagnetic Technology Section. He studied plasma accelerators, a type of electric propulsion used to propel spacecraft. He also sought to optimize the performance of magnetic brakes, in part to facilitate experiments in the center’s new 500-foot drop tower. In 1966 the center initiated a modest communications program and tapped Kosmahl to head the new Tube Development Section. The group studied two types of tube amplifiers–traveling wave tubes (TWT) and klystrons. NASA had recently begun incorporating TWTs, which had been devised in the 1930s, into its space its early communications satellites. In 1967 Kosmahl began developing a multistage depressed collector to be placed at the end of the tube to recycle charged particles from the tube’s electron beam. The device consisted of a series of depressed plates with openings in the center and a conical spike at the end. An electron beam was shot through the openings to the amplifier. The plates collected electrons which fell away during the transmission and recycled them back to the power source. Without the collector, these unused electrons were wasted and had to be dissipated as heat. Kosmahl’s collector, which he patented in 1972, dramatically improved tube performance and reduced operating costs. This resulted in larger coverage areas and smaller ground receiving equipment. Kosmahl then improved the device by developing a tool to refocus the electron beam before it entered the collector. The improved TWTs became a standard component for nearly every subsequent NASA and industry communications satellite. NASA recognized Koshmahl’s efforts in 1974 with the Exceptional Scientific Achievement Award. Kosmahl spent the rest of his career improving the performance and longevity of TWTs. Kosmahl was named head of the Power Amplifier Section in the Applications Division in 1973. The group expanded the center’s radio transmission efforts and specialized in the development of high-efficiency tubes for communications satellites. The center undertook a joint program with the Canadian Department of Communications to demonstrate the feasibility of using higher frequencies on the Communications Technology Satellite (CTS), which launched in 1967. Over a three-year period, the CTS, launched in 1967, confirmed the power and affordability of high-frequency communications systems made possible by Kosmahl’s inventions. The military was also interested in utilizing the multistage depressed collector to improve its electronic countermeasures, or “radar jamming,” capabilities. The center partnered with the Air Force in the mid- 1970s to apply Kosmahl’s collector and beam refocusing technologies to military tubes operating over a range of frequencies and power levels. The tubes used in contemporary military systems were not only inefficient but suffered thermal damage from the dissipation of unused electrons. The program focused on developing highly-efficient, low-cost designs that were small enough to install on military aircraft. The multistage depressed collector was also used to improve the efficiency of ultrahigh-efficiency (UHF) transmitters. In the 1980s Kosmahl helped develop klystron tube amplifiers for UHF transmitters that required only half the energy of normal transmitters. The effort resulted in significant savings for public broadcasters and others using the UHF bandwidth. The Public Broadcasting Service and NASA each received Emmy Awards in 1987 for implementing the technology, and the center presented Kosmahl with its largest cash award to date for his contributions. For most of his NASA career, Kosmahl not only pursued his own research projects, but also managed and inspired a team of that included renowned researchers such as Peter Ramin and James Dayton and a new generation of engineers that carried the center’s communications excellency forward. Kosmahl’s legacy at NASA lives on both through his innovations and the cadre of communications specialists who have followed his lead. Kosmahl retired from NASA in 1984 after 21 years of service but continued working at the center as a Distinguished Research Associate and a NASA contractor. He served as a consultant to several large corporations and became the principal scientist for start-up AmpWave Tech LLC in the early 2000s. Kosmahl authored over 40 articles and books and earned numerous patents for his inventions. He is broadly recognized for his revolutionary advancement of communications technology and has received a plethora of awards, including the Aviation Week Laurels Award, IEEE Technology Advancement Award, IEEE Major Inventor Award, the Cleveland Electrical/Electronics Conference and Exposition Centennial Award, R&D 100 Award, and most recently, induction of the TWT into the Space Technology Hall of Fame, 2020. Kosmahl passed away in September 2011. Related Documents Kosmahl Press Releases Kosmahl articles (1971-90) Kosmahl interview Technology for Television Spinoff article (1986) Photographs Henry Kosmahl with his depressed collector tube in April 1971. NASA Henry Kosmahl and Air Force Major Buck with traveling tube test rig (1977). NASA Various views of the traveling wave tube and test equipment.NASA Henry Kosmahl examines depressed collector (1984).NASA Henry Kosmahl poses with awards at center Inventor’s Day (1987). NASA Center Director John Klineberg presents Henry Kosmahl with award at Inventor’s Day ceremony in April 1987. NASA Henry Kosmahl with Emmy Award for the Communications Technology Satellite (CTS). NASAView the full article

Citation Bruce Lundin started in 1943 as a mechanical engineer working on the problem’s of piston engines, but quickly moved to the emerging field of jet engines. A constant advocate for the expansion and evolution of work done at the center and also within the agency, he was one of the most vocal in advocating for the NACA’s leadership in space-related activities. His 1957 paper “Some Remarks on a future policy and course of action for the NACA would go on to become the basic template for which NASA’s structure would be based, with the NACA serving as its core. From 1969 to 1977, he served as the center director, navigating the center through one of its most difficult periods. Biography Bruce Lundin’s 35-year career began in 1943 when the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) lab that would become the NASA Glenn Research Center was still known as the Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory. At first Lundin worked on engine cooling and heat transfer for piston engines, but almost immediately he was thrown into the secret new field of jet engines. This work between 1943 and 1946 yielded concepts such as the afterburner, variable-area nozzle, and reverse thruster— components that remain basic elements of many modern jet aircraft. At only 33 years old, Lundin was promoted to chief of the Engine Research Division (1952 to 1958), overseeing full-scale engine testing in simulated flight conditions. The research contributed significantly to the performance of modern commercial and military aircraft. During this period, Lundin also was responsible for establishing requirements for future aircraft and ramjet engines. In this role, he advocated the expansion of the Lab’s research to spacecraft propulsion. Although others at the lab were also interested in space, he was among the most vocal. Lundin felt passionately that the NACA should not only participate in, but coordinate, all space-related research. The launch of Sputnik in October 1957 resulted in widespread calls for the establishment of a national space program. One Sunday afternoon in December 1957, Lundin drafted his seminal “Some Remarks on a Future Policy and Course of Action for the NACA.” This document outlined in detail the formation of a new space agency based on the NACA structure. It advocated a broad range of space research to be coordinated by the NACA, warned against concentrating on any single project, and called for the establishment of a new laboratory dedicated to space. Lundin’s report, updated by associate director Abe Silverstein and renamed “Lewis Laboratory Opinion of a Future Policy and Course of Action for the NACA,” was presented to NACA Headquarters and served as the basic template for NASA. With the establishment of NASA in 1958, Lundin was named associate director of the NASA Lewis Research Center. He was responsible for planning and directing research for the entire center. Under Lundin’s guidance, Lewis expanded its space propulsion and power research with the development of electric-, solar-, and nuclear-power-generating systems for spacecraft and high-energy chemical, electric, and nuclear propulsion systems. Lundin was a strong advocate for Lewis’ involvement in program management. There was some controversy regarding the former NACA lab’s being too involved in development. When Center Director Abe Silverstein reorganized the center in 1961 in an effort to segregate the research and development work, Lundin was put in charge of all Lewis development work. This would prove to be a substantial role with the addition of the Centaur, Agena, and M–1 rocket programs the following year. The project management of launch vehicles would become one of the center’s greatest successes. In 1969, Bruce Lundin became center director and navigated the center through its most difficult period. The center’s budget was significantly slashed as the Apollo program wound down. Layoffs occurred and facilities were mothballed. In an effort to boost morale and generate staff support for Lewis’s goals, Lundin instituted the Lewis Acquainting Wage Board, Administrative and Research Employees with New Endeavors of Special Significance (AWARENESS) program in 1974. Talks by Lundin, frequent ceremonies, film specials, and newspaper articles were used to recognize Lewis’s accomplishments, programs, and staff. Lundin sought new areas of research and increased Lewis’s research efforts on energy-efficient engines and noise reduction for the airline industry. He was convinced that the staff’s long history of energy-conversion work for space applications could be applied to new methods of providing clean, renewable energy. In the midst of the oil embargo, Lewis undertook a wide range of alternative energy programs. One of the most successful efforts was a wind energy program in partnership with what is today the Department of Energy. This program set a precedent for what has become an entire wind turbine industry. During this time, Lewis also developed solar-powered electric systems for remote areas and villages, batteries for electric automobiles, and the efficient Stirling automotive engine. Lundin was able to successfully mold Lewis into a leading energy-conversion laboratory. Lewis’s greatest achievements during Lundin’s tenure were in the Launch Vehicles Division. The group was responsible for not only maintaining and updating the Centaur rocket but for integrating the payload with the Atlas and Titan boosters. Over 30 high-profile missions were launched during Lundin’s term, including Pioneer 10, which was the first spacecraft to explore the outer solar system; Mariners 6 and 7, which mapped Mars; Mariner 10, which orbited Venus and Mercury; and the Viking spacecraft, which placed two rovers on the Mars surface. Lundin retired in 1977 after a long, distinguished career as an engineer, manager, and director of major programs. His efforts provided a firm foundation for subsequent achievements in aeronautics, space, and energy. He continually demonstrated outstanding leadership in planning research, organizing resources for effective and timely execution, and inspiring extraordinary efforts from his staff to solve complex problems. Bruce Lundin passed away at the age of 86 on January 24, 2006. Related Documents Lundin Biographical Sketches (1956-73) National Academy of Engineering Memorial Tribute (2014) Lundin Center Director Biography (2023) Photographs Center Director Bruce Lundin in his office in the Administration Building (1/4/1974). NASA Bruce Lundin with an exhibit on jet propulsion for a tour by the Institute of Aeronautical Science (3/26/1946). NASA Bruce Lundin and Abe Silverstein host K.S. Thue and F.H. Keast of the Avro Company (5/27/1954). NASA Center Director Abe Silverstein presents Bruce Lundin with a 40-Year Service Award (10/22/1965). NASA Send off for Bruce Lundin at the Guerin House before he transferred to NASA Headquarters in May 1968. NASA Lundin and Ed Richley, Head of Operations Analysis and Planning, examine a Lewis Awareness award (6/22/1972). NASA Lewis Director Bruce Lundin with Apollo 17 astronauts Gene Cernan, Ron Evans, and Harold Schmidt in the hangar (2/16/1973). NASA Center Director Bruce Lundin in his office in the Administration Building (9/5/1975). NASAView the full article

A SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket launched on March 3, 2024, from NASA’s from Kennedy Space Center in Florida carrying the agency’s SpaceX Crew-8 mission into orbit for a mission to the International Space Station.NASA An international crew of four reached orbit following a successful launch to the International Space Station at 10:53 p.m. EST Sunday from Launch Complex 39A at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida. NASA’s SpaceX Crew-8 mission is the agency’s eighth commercial crew rotation mission with the company to the space station. A SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket propelled the Dragon spacecraft into orbit carrying NASA astronauts Matthew Dominick, Michael Barratt, and Jeanette Epps, along with Roscosmos cosmonaut Alexander Grebenkin, for a science expedition aboard the orbital laboratory. “Congratulations to NASA and SpaceX on another successful launch to the International Space Station! On this eighth crew rotation mission, we are once again showing the strength of our commercial partnerships and American ingenuity that will propel us further in the cosmos,” said NASA Administrator Bill Nelson. “Aboard the station, the crew will conduct more than 200 science experiments and technology demonstrations to help fuel this new era of space exploration and benefit humanity here on Earth.” During Dragon’s flight, SpaceX will monitor a series of automatic spacecraft maneuvers from its mission control center in Hawthorne, California. NASA teams will monitor space station operations throughout the flight from the Mission Control Center at the agency’s Johnson Space Center in Houston. NASA coverage continues with audio only commentary until the start of the rendezvous and docking broadcast. The Dragon spacecraft, named Endeavour, will dock autonomously to the forward port of the station’s Harmony module about 3 a.m. Tuesday, March 5. NASA will provide live coverage of rendezvous, docking, and hatch opening, beginning at 1 a.m., on NASA+, NASA Television, the NASA app, YouTube, and the agency’s website. NASA also will continue coverage of the crew welcome ceremony once they are aboard the orbital outpost. Learn how to stream NASA TV through a variety of platforms including social media. Crew-8 will join the space station’s Expedition 70 crew of NASA astronauts Jasmin Moghbeli and Loral O’Hara, ESA (European Space Agency) astronaut Andreas Mogensen, JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) astronaut Satoshi Furukawa, and Roscosmos cosmonauts Konstantin Borisov, Oleg Kononenko, and Nikolai Chubb. For a short time, the number of crew aboard the space station will increase to 11 until Crew-7 members Moghbeli, Mogensen, Furukawa, and Borisov return to Earth a few days later. Crew-8 will conduct new scientific research to prepare for human exploration beyond low Earth orbit and benefit humanity on Earth. Experiments include a study of brain organoids to understand neurodegenerative disorders, shifts in body fluids during spaceflight, and the effects of UV radiation and microgravity on plant growth. These are just a few of the more than 200 science experiments and technology demonstrations that will take place during their mission. With this mission, NASA will maximize use of the space station, where astronauts have lived and worked continuously for more than 23 years testing technologies, performing science, and developing the skills needed to operate future commercial destinations in low Earth orbit and explore farther from Earth. Research conducted on the space station provides benefits for people on Earth and paves the way for future long-duration trips to the Moon and beyond through NASA’s Artemis missions. More about Crew-8 Matthew Dominick is the commander for Crew-8, his first spaceflight since his selection as an astronaut in 2017. During Expedition 70/71 aboard the space station, he will serve as a mission specialist. Follow @dominickmatthew on X. Michael Barratt is the Crew-8 pilot, making his third visit to the space station. In 2009, Barratt served as a flight engineer for Expeditions 19/20 as the station transitioned its standard crew complement from three to six and performed two spacewalks. He flew aboard the space shuttle Discovery in 2011 on STS-133, which delivered the Permanent Multipurpose Module and fourth Express Logistics Carrier. Barratt has spent a total of 212 days in space. During Expedition 70/71, he will serve as a mission specialist. Jeanette Epps is a mission specialist for Crew-8, her first spaceflight, working with the commander and pilot to monitor the spacecraft during the dynamic launch and re-entry phases of flight. Epps was selected by NASA as an astronaut in 2009. She will serve as a flight engineer during Expeditions 70/71. Follow @Astro_Jeanette on X. Roscosmos cosmonaut Alexander Grebenkin is flying on his first mission. He will serve as a flight engineer during Expeditions 70/71. Learn more about NASA’s SpaceX Crew-8 mission and Commercial Crew Program at: https://www.nasa.gov/commercialcrew -end- Josh Finch / Claire O’Shea Headquarters, Washington 202-358-1100 joshua.a.finch@nasa.gov / claire.a.oshea@nasa.gov Steven Siceloff / Danielle Sempsrott Kennedy Space Center, Florida 321-867-2468 steven.p.siceloff@nasa.gov / danielle.c.sempsrott@nasa.gov Leah Cheshier Johnson Space Center, Houston 281-483-5111 leah.d.cheshier@nasa.gov View the full article

Rae Anderson, subject matter expert for software assurance in the NASA Stennis Safety and Mission Assurance Directorate, is the first employee at NASA’s Stennis Space Center – and one of five civil servants across NASA – to earn the highest distinction in the Safety and Mission Assurance Technical Excellence Program in the discipline of software assurance. The level four certification demonstrates Anderson’s dedication to growing her knowledge and skills to become an effective contributor to the agency’s mission.NASA/Danny Nowlin Rae Anderson never set out to have a career with NASA, but the pursuit of opportunities around her interest in computer science led the Union City, Tennessee native to the agency that explores the secrets of the universe for the benefit of all. In turn, Anderson’s desire to expand her knowledge helped her become the first employee at NASA’s Stennis Space Center – and one of five civil servants across NASA – to earn the highest distinction in the Safety and Mission Assurance Technical Excellence Program in the discipline of Software Assurance. “I want to be good at my job, so early in my career, I set a goal of reaching this certification,” Anderson said. The program’s level four certification demonstrates Anderson’s dedication to growing her knowledge and skills to become an effective contributor to the agency’s mission. As the subject matter expert for software assurance, Anderson serves as a technical lead for a team in the NASA Stennis Safety and Mission Assurance Directorate that supports the center’s work with propulsion testing and autonomous systems. Along the way, I have been a part of a team at NASA Stennis that has good people who are going to do what they need to do to accomplish goals, whatever it takes to accomplish it and to do it safely. rae anderson NASA Stennis SME for Software Assurance Whether it is propulsion testing for NASA’s Artemis mission or autonomous systems work on pace for the first-ever in-flight autonomous systems mission, the work at NASA Stennis relies on software to carry out complex tasks. Anderson’s team reviews software management plans to ensure all requirements are met to conduct the work safely. She helps lead the effort to determine possible hazards and, if any are present, to put controls and mitigations in place to lessen the risk. “It’s important to ensure any potential issues are mitigated,” Anderson said. “It is not a guarantee, but it gives a better feeling that all have done what they are supposed to do as far as following the process and that the software is technically sound to move forward. With software, there’s always going to be bugs because there is so much of it. We are there as the checks and balances of engineering as a project moves forward.” Before moving forward and earning a computer science degree from the University of Tennessee-Martin, Anderson grew up 20 minutes from the Tennessee-Kentucky border, which meant she did not live near a NASA center. When she thought about NASA and space, astronauts and the solar system came to mind. Since Anderson’s career in software brought her to live in Slidell, Louisiana, and ultimately begin work at NASA Stennis 16 years ago, Anderson has discovered that NASA is much more. She has found NASA to be a place that combines her knowledge of software with a diverse and highly skilled workforce, coming together for the benefit of humanity. “Along the way, I have been a part of a team at NASA Stennis that has good people who are going to do what they need to do to accomplish goals, whatever it takes to accomplish it and to do it safely,” Anderson said. For information about NASA’s Stennis Space Center, visit: Stennis Space Center – NASA View the full article

NASA's SpaceX Crew-8 Launch (Official NASA Broadcast)

An Historic Delivery to the Moon’s South Pole on This Week @NASA – March 1, 2024

6 min read Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater) Illustration showing multiple future air transportation options NASA researchers are studying or working to enable.NASA This ARMD solicitations page compiles the opportunities to collaborate with NASA’s aeronautical innovators and/or contribute to their research to enable new and improved air transportation systems. A summary of available opportunities with key dates requiring action are listed first. More information about each opportunity is detailed lower on this page. University Student Research Challenge Key date: March 21, 2024, at 5 p.m. ET (This is a change from Feb. 22.) AAVP Fellowship Key date: April 30, 2024 University Leadership Initiative Key date: May 29, 2024 Advanced Air Mobility Key date: Feb. 1, 2025, at 6 p.m. EST Advanced Capabilities for Emergency Response Operations GENERAL ANNOUNCEMENT OF REQUEST FOR INFORMATION Advanced Capabilities for Emergency Response Operations is using this request for information to identify technologies that address current challenges facing the wildland firefighting community. NASA is seeking information on data collection, airborne connectivity and communications solutions, unmanned aircraft systems traffic management, aircraft operations and autonomy, and more. This will support development of a partnership strategy for future collaborative demonstrations. Interested parties were requested to respond to this notice with an information package no later than 4 pm ET, October 15, 2023, that shall be submitted via https://nari.arc.nasa.gov/acero-rfi. Any proprietary information must be clearly marked. Submissions will be accepted only from United States companies. View the full RFI Announcement here. Advanced Air Mobility Mission GENERAL ADVANCED AIR MOBILITY ANNOUNCEMENT OF REQUEST FOR INFORMATION This request for information (RFI) is being used to gather market research for NASA to make informed decisions regarding potential partnership strategies and future research to enable Advanced Air Mobility (AAM). NASA is seeking information from public, private, and academic organizations to determine technical needs and community interests that may lead to future solicitations regarding AAM research and development. This particular RFI is just one avenue of multiple planned opportunities for formal feedback on or participation in NASA’s AAM Mission-related efforts to develop these requirements and help enable AAM. The current respond by date for this RFI is Feb. 1, 2025, at 6 p.m. EST. View the full RFI announcement here. NASA Research Opportunities in Aeronautics NASA’s Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate (ARMD) uses the NASA Research Announcement (NRA) process to solicit proposals for foundational research in areas where ARMD seeks to enhance its core capabilities. Competition for NRA awards is open to both academia and industry. The current open solicitation for ARMD Research Opportunities is ROA-2023 and ROA-2024. Here is some general information to know about the NRA process. NRA solicitations are released by NASA Headquarters through the Web-based NASA Solicitation and Proposal Integrated Review and Evaluation System (NSPIRES). All NRA technical work is defined and managed by project teams within these four programs: Advanced Air Vehicles Program, Airspace Operations and Safety Program, Integrated Aviation Systems Program, and Transformative Aeronautics Concepts Program. NRA awards originate from NASA’s Langley Research Center in Virginia, Ames Research Center in California, Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, and Armstrong Flight Research Center in California. Competition for NRA awards is full and open. Participation is open to all categories of organizations, including educational institutions, industry, and nonprofits. Any updates or amendments to an NRA is posted on the appropriate NSPIRES web pages as noted in the Amendments detailed below. ARMD sends notifications of NRA updates through the NSPIRES email system. In order to receive these email notifications, you must be a Registered User of NSPIRES. However, note that NASA is not responsible for inadvertently failing to provide notification of a future NRA. Parties are responsible for regularly checking the NSPIRES website for updated NRAs. ROA-2024 NRA Amendments Amendment 1 NEW FEB. 29, 2021 (Full text here.) Amendment 1 to the NASA ARMD Research Opportunities in Aeronautics (ROA) 2024 NRA has been posted on the NSPIRES web site at https://nspires.nasaprs.com. The announcement solicits proposals from accredited U.S. institutions for research training grants to begin the academic year. This NOFO is designed to support independently conceived research projects by highly qualified graduate students, in disciplines needed to help advance NASA’s mission, thus affording these students the opportunity to directly contribute to advancements in STEM-related areas of study. AAVP Fellowship Opportunities are focused on innovation and the generation of measurable research results that contribute to NASA’s current and future science and technology goals. Research proposals are sought to address key challenges provided in Elements of Appendix A.8. Notices of Intent (NOIs) are not required. A budget breakdown for each proposal is required, detailing the allocation of the award funds by year. The budget document may adhere to any format or template provided by the applicant’s institution. Two pre-proposal teleconferences for potential proposers will be held and meeting links will be posted on NSPIRES. Proposals are due by April 30, 2024, at 5 PM ET. Amendment 2 NEW FEB. 29, 2024 (Full text here.) University Leadership Initiative (ULI) provides the opportunity for university teams to exercise technical and organizational leadership in proposing unique technical challenges in aeronautics, defining multi-disciplinary solutions, establishing peer review mechanisms, and applying innovative teaming strategies to strengthen the research impact. Research proposals are sought in six ULI topic areas in Appendix D.4. Topic 1: Safe, Efficient Growth in Global Operations (Strategic Thrust 1) Topic 2: Innovation in Commercial High-Speed Aircraft (Strategic Thrust 2) Topic 3: Ultra-Efficient Subsonic Transports (Strategic Thrust 3) Topic 4: Safe, Quiet, and Affordable Vertical Lift Air Vehicles (Strategic Thrust 4) Topic 5: In-Time System-Wide Safety Assurance (Strategic Thrust 5) Topic 6: Assured Autonomy for Aviation Transformation (Strategic Thrust 6) This NRA will utilize a two-step proposal submission and evaluation process. The initial step is a short mandatory Step-A proposal due May 29, 2024. Those offerors submitting the most highly rated Step-A proposals will be invited to submit a Step-B proposal. All proposals must be submitted electronically through NSPIRES at https://nspires.nasaprs.com. An Applicant’s Workshop will be held on Thursday April 3, 2024; 1:00-3:00 p.m. ET (https://uli.arc.nasa.gov/applicants-workshops/workshop8) ROA-2023 NRA Amendments Amendment 5 UPDATED JAN. 30, 2024 (Full text here) Amendment 5 to the NASA ARMD Research Opportunities in Aeronautics (ROA) 2023 NRA has been posted on the NSPIRES web site. University Student Research Challenge (solicitation NNH23ZEA001N-USRC) seeks to challenge students to propose new ideas/concepts that are relevant to NASA Aeronautics. USRC will provide students, from accredited U.S. colleges or universities, with grants for their projects and with the challenge of raising cost share funds through a crowdfunding campaign. The process of creating and implementing a crowdfunding campaign acts as a teaching accelerator – requiring students to act like entrepreneurs and raise awareness about their research among the public. The solicitation goal can be accomplished through project ideas such as advancing the design, developing technology or capabilities in support of aviation, by demonstrating a novel concept, or enabling advancement of aeronautics-related technologies. Notices of Intent (NOIs) are not required for this solicitation. Three-page proposals for the next USRC cycle were due November 9, 2023. Proposals also can be submitted later and evaluated during the third (due March 21, 2024 — this is a date change from Feb. 22) and fourth (due June 20, 2024) cycles. Amendment 4 (Expired) (Full text here) Amendment 3 (Expired) (Full text here) Amendment 2 (Expired) (Full text here) Amendment 1 (Expired) (Full text here) Keep Exploring See More About NASA Aeronautics Aeronautics STEM Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Aeronáutica en español Share Details Last Updated Mar 02, 2024 EditorJim BankeContactJim Bankejim.banke@nasa.gov Related TermsAeronauticsAeronautics Research Mission Directorate View the full article

NASA Science Live: Our First Commercial Science Delivery to the Moon

For the first time in more than 50 years, NASA was able to collect data from new science instruments and technology demonstrations on the Moon. The data comes from the first successful landing of a delivery through NASA’s CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Services) initiative and Artemis campaign. The six instruments ceased science and technology operations eight days after landing in the lunar South Pole region aboard Intuitive Machines’ Odysseus, meeting pre-launch projected mission operations. Known as IM-1, this was the first U.S. soft landing on the Moon in decades, touching down on Feb. 22, proving commercial vendors can deliver instruments designed to expand the scientific and technical knowledge on the Moon. Aboard the lunar lander, NASA science instruments measured the radio noise generated by the Earth and Sun. Technology instruments, aided Intuitive Machines in navigating to the Moon and gathered distance and speed (velocity) of the lander as touched down on the lunar surface. “This mission includes many firsts. This is the first time in over 50 years that an American organization has landed instruments on the surface of the Moon,” said Joel Kearns, deputy association administrator for exploration of NASA’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington. “This mission also provides evidence of the Commercial Lunar Payload Services model, that NASA can purchase the service of sending instruments to the Moon and receiving their data back. Congratulations to the entire Intuitive Machines team and our NASA scientists and engineers for this next leap to advance exploration and our understanding of Earth’s nearest neighbor.” During transit from Earth to the Moon, all powered NASA instruments received data and completed transit checkouts. During descent, the Radio Frequency Mass Gauge and Navigation Doppler Lidar collected data during the lander’s powered descent and landing. After landing, NASA payload data was acquired consistent with the communications and other constraints resulting from the lander orientation. During surface operations, the Radio-wave Observations at the Lunar Surface of the Photoelectron Sheath and Lunar Node-1 were powered on, performed surface operations, and have received data. The Stereo Cameras for Lunar Plume-Surface Studies was powered on and captured images during transit and several days after landing but was not successfully commanded to capture images of the lander rocket plume interaction with the lunar surface during landing. The Laser Retroreflector Array is passive and initial estimates suggest it is accessible for laser ranging from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter’s Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter to create a permanent location marker on the Moon. “The bottom line is every NASA instrument has met some level of their objectives, and we are very excited about that,” said Sue Lederer, project scientist for CLPS. “We all worked together and it’s the people who really made a difference and made sure we overcame challenges to this incredible success – and that is where we are at today, with successes for all of our instruments.” NASA and Intuitive Machines co-hosted a news conference non Feb. 28 to provide a status update on the six NASA instruments that collected data on the IM-1 mission. Mission challenges and successes were discussed during the briefing, including more than approximately 500 megabytes of science, technology, and spacecraft data downloaded and ready for analysis by NASA and Intuitive Machines. The first images from this historical mission are now available and showcase the orientation of the lander along with a view of the South Pole region on the Moon. Odysseus is gently leaning into the lunar surface, preserving the ability to return scientific data. After successful transmission of images to Earth, Intuitive Machines continues to gain additional insight into Odysseus’ position on the lunar surface. All data gathered from this mission will aid Intuitive Machines in their next two CLPS contracts that NASA has previously awarded. For more information about the agency’s Commercial Lunar Payload Services initiative, visit: https://www.nasa.gov/clps Odysseus’ landing captured a leg, as it performed its primary task, absorbing first contact with the lunar surface. With the lander’s liquid methane and liquid oxygen engine still throttling, it provided stability.Credit: Intuitive Machines Taken on Tuesday, Feb. 27, Odysseus captured an image using its narrow-field-of-view camera.Credit: Intuitive Machines Keep Exploring Discover More Topics From NASA Commercial Lunar Payload Services Artemis Commercial Space Humans In Space View the full article

“A bird cannot fly with one wing only. Human space flight cannot develop any further without the active participation of women.” – Valentina Tereshkova “If we want scientists and engineers in the future, we should be cultivating the girls as much as the boys.” – Sally Ride “International cooperation is very necessary. Chinese have a saying, ‘When all the people collect the wood, you will make a great fire.’” – Liu Yang As of Feb. 29, 2024, 75 women have flown in space. Of these, 47 have worked on the International Space Station as long-duration expedition crewmembers, as visitors on space shuttle assembly flights, as space flight participants, or as commercial astronauts. This article recognizes the significant accomplishments of these women from many nations as well as the pioneering women who preceded them into space. Many other women contributed to the assembly of the station and the research conducted aboard on a daily basis, including those on the ground who served as center directors, managers, flight directors, and in many other roles to pursue the exploration of space. Their achievements will contribute to NASA’s efforts to land the first woman and the first person of color on the Moon and possibly send the first crews to Mars in the coming decades. Left: The five women selected for training to be the first woman in space, Soviet cosmonaut-candidates Valentina L. Ponomareva, left, Tatiana D. Kuznetsova, Irina B. Soloveva, Valentina V. Tereshkova, and Zhanna D. Yorkina, with an unidentified woman at far right. Right: Tereshkova just before boarding her Vostok 6 capsule for her historic spaceflight. The era of women in space began on June 16, 1963, when Soviet cosmonaut Valentina V. Tereshkova launched aboard the Vostok 6 spacecraft. Chosen from a group of five women selected for training, Tereshkova completed a three-day mission and entered the history books as the first woman to orbit the Earth. Nearly 20 years passed before another woman flew in space. In January 1978, NASA announced the selection of 35 new astronauts including six women for the space shuttle program. In response, the Soviet Union secretly selected a group of nine women cosmonauts in 1980. On Aug. 19, 1982, one of these women, Svetlana Y. Savitskaya, launched with her two crewmates aboard Soyuz T-7 for a week-long mission. The next day, they joined the two long-duration resident crewmembers aboard Salyut 7, marking the first time a space station hosted a mixed-gender crew. Ten months later, on June 18, 1983, astronaut Sally K. Ride made history as the first American woman in space, spending seven days aboard space shuttle Challenger during the STS-7 mission. Left: The six women astronauts selected by NASA in 1978, Shannon M. Lucid, left, M. Rhea Seddon, Kathryn D. Sullivan, Judith A. Resnik, Anna L. Fisher, and Sally K. Ride, pose with an Apollo-era space suit. Right: Ride aboard space shuttle Challenger during the STS-7 mission. Savitskaya made history again on July 25, 1984, as the first woman to participate in a spacewalk during her second flight to Salyut 7. Less than three months later, on Oct. 11, Kathryn D. Sullivan completed the first spacewalk by an American woman from space shuttle Challenger during the STS-41G mission. With Ride as one of Sullivan’s crewmates, the flight marked the first time a space crew included two women. Left: Soviet cosmonaut Svetlana Y. Savitskaya during her historic spacewalk outside the Salyut 7 space station. Right: NASA astronauts Kathryn D. Sullivan, left, and Sally K. Ride aboard space shuttle Challenger during the STS-41G mission. Helen P. Sharman has the distinction as not only the first person from the United Kingdom in space but also the first woman to visit the Russian space station Mir. During her eight-day privately funded Juno mission in May 1991, Sharman conducted a series of life sciences experiments and talked to British schoolchildren. The next month marked the first time that a space crew included three women – NASA astronauts M. Rhea Seddon, Tamara E. Jernigan, and Millie E. Hughes-Fulford – during the STS-40 Spacelab Life Sciences 1 mission. Left: Helen P. Sharman, the United Kingdom’s first astronaut, aboard the space station Mir in 1991. Right: The first time a space crew included three women – NASA astronauts Tamara E. Jernigan, back row middle, M. Rhea Seddon, and Millie R. Hughes-Fulford – the STS-40 mission in 1991. Selected in 1983 as one of the six members of the initial cadre of the Canadian Astronaut Program – later incorporated into the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) – Dr. Roberta L. Bondar became the first Canadian woman in space during the STS-42 flight of Discovery in January 1992. As a payload specialist and the first neurologist in space, she performed and participated in more than 40 experiments during the eight-day International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1) mission. NASA selected Dr. Mae C. Jemison as an astronaut in 1987. In September 1992, she became the first African American woman in space as a crew member of Endeavour’s STS-47 Spacelab-J mission. During the eight-day flight, she conducted numerous life and materials sciences experiments. Selected in NASA’s 1990 class of astronauts, Ellen Ochoa became the first Hispanic woman in space in April 1993 as a mission specialist on the STS-56 flight of Discovery, the second Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science mission. An accomplished flautist, she played the flute during her spare time during the mission. Ochoa completed three more space shuttle flights and served as the first Hispanic director of NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston from 2013 to 2018. Selected in 1985 as an astronaut by the National Space Development Agency of Japan, now the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), Dr. Chiaki Mukai became the first Japanese woman in space in July 1994 when she spent 15 days as a payload specialist on the STS-65 IML-2 mission aboard Columbia. She became the first Japanese astronaut to make two spaceflights when she returned to space in 1998 aboard STS-95. Left: Dr. Roberta L. Bondar, the first Canadian woman in space, participates in a neuro-vestibular experiment during the STS-42 International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1) mission. Middle left: Dr. Mae C. Jemison, the first African American woman in space, works in the Spacelab module during the STS-47 Spacelab-J mission. Middle right: Ellen Ochoa, the first Hispanic woman in space, enjoys playing the flute in her spare time during the STS-56 mission. Right: Dr. Chiaki Mukai, the first Japanese woman in space, floats into the Spacelab module during the STS-65 IML-2 mission. The honor of the first woman to complete a long-duration mission belongs to Russian cosmonaut Elena V. Kondakova. She launched aboard Soyuz TM20 on Oct. 3, 1994, and spent 169 days aboard the space station Mir as a member of Expedition 17, returning to Earth on March 22, 1995. The first American woman to complete a long-duration mission, NASA astronaut Shannon W. Lucid, launched aboard space shuttle Atlantis on March 22, 1996, as part of the STS-76 crew. The second NASA astronaut to fly as part of the Shuttle-Mir Program, Lucid spent 188 days aboard Mir, setting a new record for the longest single flight by a woman, as a member of Expeditions 21 and 22, returning to Earth with STS-79 on Sep. 26. Left: Russian cosmonaut Elena V. Kondakova, second from right, aboard Mir during the handover between Expedition 16 and 17 in 1994. Right: NASA astronaut Shannon W. Lucid, left, with her Mir Expedition 21 crewmates in 1996. With Lucid still onboard Mir, the August 1996 flight of Claudie André-Deshays, France’s first woman astronaut visiting the station during her Cassiopée research mission, marked the first time that two women lived aboard any space station. After marrying fellow French astronaut and Mir veteran Jean-Pierre Haigneré, she returned to space in October 2001, this time during her eight-day Andromède research mission to the International Space Station, becoming the first woman to live and work aboard two different space stations. Left: Claudie André-Deshays, left, France’s first female astronaut, with Russian cosmonaut Yuri V. Usachev and NASA astronaut Shannon M. Lucid aboard Mir in 1996. Right: Claudie (André-Deshays) Haigneré in the Zvezda Service Module of the International Space Station in 2001. When on-orbit assembly of the International Space Station commenced in 1998, female astronauts took part from the very beginning. As the first woman to reach the new facility, NASA astronaut Nancy J. Currie participated in the first assembly mission, STS-88 in December 1998. She used the shuttle’s robotic arm to precisely join the American Unity Node 1 module to the Russian-built Zarya module, launched three weeks earlier. Left: NASA astronaut Nancy J. Currie, front row right, the first woman to reach the International Space Station, with her STS-88 crewmates in 1998. Right: Currie at work in the Zarya module. The second space station assembly mission, STS-96 in May 1999, included three women on the crew – NASA astronauts Jernigan and Ellen Ochoa, and CSA’s Julie Payette. Jernigan became the first woman to participate in a spacewalk at the space station to install crane equipment for future assembly tasks, with Ochoa as the robotic arm operator. Payette became the first Canadian of any gender to visit the space station and became the first Canadian to return to the space station during STS-127 in 2009. Left: In 1999, the STS-96 crew in the Unity Node 1 module, with NASA astronaut Tamara E. Jernigan and Julie Payette of the Canadian Space Agency in the top row and NASA astronaut Ellen Ochoa at bottom right. Middle: Jernigan during the STS-96 spacewalk. Right: Payette in the Unity Node 1 module. NASA astronaut Pamela A. Melroy served as the first female pilot on a shuttle flight to the space station, the STS-92 mission in October 2000 that added the Z1 truss, control moment gyros, and a Pressurized Mating Adapter to the growing station. She returned to the station as pilot of STS-112 in October 2002 and as commander of STS-120 in October 2007. NASA astronaut Susan J. Helms holds several distinctions for women. As a member of Expedition 2, she became the first woman to complete a long-duration mission on the space station, a 167-day flight between March and August of 2001. She had previously flown to the station during STS-101, making her the first woman to visit the facility twice. A graduate of the U.S. Air Force Academy’s first woman-inclusive class of 1980, Helms was the first woman with a military background to visit the station. She co-holds the record for the longest spacewalk to date, 8 hours 56 minutes, completed with her Expedition 2 crewmate NASA astronaut James S. Voss. Left: STS-92 Pilot NASA astronaut Pamela A. Melroy shortly after reaching orbit in 2000. Right: Expedition 2 Commander Yuri V. Usachev of Roscosmos, left, coaxing a reluctant Flight Engineer NASA astronaut Susan J. Helms to leave the International Space Station at the end of their mission in 2001. NASA astronaut Eileen M. Collins had already made history three times before, first in 1995 as the first female pilot of a space shuttle mission (STS-63), the second time in 1997 when she served as the first female shuttle pilot to dock with a space station (STS-84 and Mir), and again in 1999 as the first woman shuttle commander (STS-93). In 2005, Collins became the first woman to command a shuttle mission to the space station, the Return to Flight STS-114 mission, the first after the Columbia accident two years previously. NASA astronaut Heidemarie M. “Heidi” Stefanyshyn-Piper conducted the first spacewalk by a woman from the station’s Quest Joint Airlock on Sep. 12, 2006, during the STS-115 mission that installed the P3/P4 truss segment on the station. Left: In 2005, STS-114 Commander NASA astronaut Eileen M. Collins, left, with Pilot NASA astronaut James M. “Vegas” Kelly on the flight deck of Discovery. Right: NASA astronaut Heidemarie M. “Heidi” Stefanyshyn-Piper working on the P3/P4 truss segment during an STS-115 spacewalk in 2006. On Sept. 18, 2006, Anousheh Ansari became the first Iranian-born American in space when she launched with her Expedition 14 crew mates aboard Soyuz TMA9. Flying as a spaceflight participant through a commercial agreement with the Russian government, Ansari conducted four experiments on behalf of the European Space Agency (ESA) during her nine-day mission. She returned to Earth with the Expedition 13 crew. Eighteen months later, through a joint agreement between the governments of Russia and the Republic of Korea, Yi So-yeon, a researcher at the Korean Aerospace Research Institute (KARI), became the first Korean in space when she launched aboard Soyuz TMA12 with her Expedition 15 crew mates on April 8, 2008. During her 10-day mission aboard the space station, Yi carried out 18 experiments for KARI. She returned to Earth with Expedition 16 crew members NASA astronaut Peggy A. Whitson and Roscosmos cosmonaut Yuri I. Malenchenko, enduring a strenuous ballistic reentry caused by a spacecraft malfunction. The event marked the first time that women outnumbered men during a spaceflight landing. Left: Spaceflight participant Anousheh Ansari, center, with her Expedition 13 and 14 crew mates during a press conference. Middle left: Ansari holds a plant grown in the Lada greenhouse in the Zvezda Service Module. Middle right: Korean spaceflight participant Yi So-yeon with her Expedition 16 crew mates. Right: Yi conducts an experiment in the Pirs Docking Compartment. Whitson holds the distinction as the first female commander of the space station during Expedition 16 in 2007, her second long-duration mission to the orbiting lab. The busy expedition included the addition to the station of the Harmony Node 2 module, ESA’s Columbus research module, the first of the JAXA elements, and the arrival of the first of ESA’s Automated Transfer Vehicle cargo resupply vehicles. As noted above, Melroy commanded STS-120, the October 2007 mission that brought Columbus to the station, marking the first and only time that women commanded both the space station and the visiting space shuttle. In 2017, during Expedition 51 Whitson became the first woman to command the station for a second time. During this third flight, she spent 289 days in space, at the time the longest single flight by a woman. As of March 2024, Whitson holds the record for the most cumulative spaceflight time for a woman as well as for any American astronaut – o er the course of three long-duration missions aboard the space station, she spent a total of 675 days or about 1.8 years in space. She also holds the record for the most spacewalk time for a woman – during 10 spacewalks, she spent 60 hours, 21 minutes outside the station. Left: During the change of command ceremony, Expedition 16 Commander NASA astronaut Peggy A. Whitson, top right, hangs the crew’s patch in the Destiny module. Right: STS-120 Commander NASA astronaut Pamela A. Melroy, left, and Expedition 16 Commander Whitson meet at the hatch between the two vehicles. The first time four women flew aboard the space station at one time occurred between May 16 and 23, 2010. Expedition 23 Flight Engineer NASA astronaut Tracy C. Dyson had been living and working aboard since April when STS-131 arrived, with NASA astronauts Dorothy M. “Dottie” Metcalf-Lindenburger and Stephanie D. Wilson, and Naoko Yamazaki of JAXA as members of the shuttle crew – Yamazaki became the first Japanese woman to visit the space station. The mission brought four new research facilities to the station. Three weeks after the shuttle’s departure, Dyson and her crewmates welcomed a new trio of long-duration crew members including NASA astronaut Shannon Walker, making Expedition 24 the first to include two women. The next two-woman expedition took place between November 2014 and March 2015 – Expedition 42 included Roscosmos cosmonaut Elena O. Serova, the first Russian woman to make a long-duration flight aboard the space station, and Samantha Cristoforetti from Italy, the first female ESA astronaut on a long-duration mission, spending 199 days in space, a then-record as the longest by an international partner astronaut. Left: Four women aboard the International Space Station – NASA astronauts Dorothy M. Metcalf-Lindenburger, top left, Tracy C. Dyson, and Stephanie D. Wilson, and Naoko Yamazaki of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Middle: Caldwell Dyson, middle, and NASA astronaut Shannon Walker with their Expedition 24 crewmate NASA astronaut Douglas H. “Wheels” Wheelock, left. Right: Elena O. Serova, left, of Roscomos and European Space Agency astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti in the Automated Transfer Vehicle-5 Georges Lemaître cargo vehicle during Expedition 42. Expedition crews including two women have recently become more common. During Expedition 57, NASA astronauts Serena M. Auñón-Chancellor and Anne C. McClain overlapped by about three weeks in December 2018. Between March and June 2019, McClain and NASA astronaut Christina H. Koch were aboard as part of Expedition 59, and NASA astronaut Jessica U. Meir joined Koch in September of that year during Expedition 61. Koch returned to Earth in February 2020, completing a flight of 329 days, the longest single mission to date by a woman. Left: NASA astronauts Serena M. Auñón-Chancellor, left, and Anne C. McClain work together in the Kibo module during Expedition 57. Right: McClain, left, and NASA astronaut Christina H. Koch demonstrate weightlessness during Expedition 59. The Expedition 61 crew conducted a record nine spacewalks between October 2019 and January 2020. Koch and Meir made history on Oct. 18 when they floated outside the space station to carry out the first all-woman spacewalk, one of several to replace the station’s batteries. The capsule communicator (capcom), the person in the Mission Control Center at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston who communicates with the astronauts in space, for this historic spacewalk was three-time space shuttle veteran Wilson (who as noted above took part in the first four-woman gathering on the space station). “As much as it’s worth celebrating the first spacewalk with an all-female team, I think many of us are looking forward to it just being normal,” astronaut Dyson said during live coverage of the spacewalk. As if to prove her point, Koch and Meir conducted two more all-woman spacewalks in January 2020. Meir’s return to Earth marked the end of the longest period up to that time of a continuous female presence aboard the space station – 682 days (one year and 10 months) from June 8, 2018, to April 17, 2020. Left: Space suited NASA astronauts Jessica U. Meir, left, and Christina H. Koch, assisted by their Expedition 61 crewmates, prepare for the first all-woman spacewalk. Right: Capsule communicators NASA astronauts Stephanie D. Wilson, left, and Mark T. Vande Hei assist Meir and Koch during the first all-woman spacewalk from the Mission Control Center at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston. The arrival of NASA astronaut Kathleen H. “Kate” Rubins on Oct 14, 2020, began the longest continuous period to date with at least one woman living and working aboard the space station. On Nov. 16, as a member of NASA’s Crew-1 mission aboard SpaceX’s Crew Dragon Resilience spacecraft, NASA astronaut Walker became the first woman to travel on a commercial crew vehicle. When she and her three crewmates joined the Expedition 64 crew abord the space station, they comprised the station’s first-ever seven-member resident crew. With Rubins already onboard, for the next five months two women once again called the space station home. NASA astronaut K. Megan McArthur, the first woman to pilot a commercial crew vehicle, arrived in April 2021 as a member of NASA’s Crew-2 mission, followed by Crew-3’s NASA astronaut Kayla S. Barron in November 2021. Left: NASA astronaut Shannon Walker, the first woman to fly on a commercial crew vehicle, looks out the window of the SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft Resilience. Middle: NASA astronauts Kathleen H. “Kate” Rubins, left, and Walker working inside the International Space Station. Right: The space station’s first seven-member crew including Walker, left, and Rubins, third from left, pose in the Kibo module. Left: NASA astronaut K. Megan McArthur wearing her SpaceX launch and entry suit in the Destiny U.S. Laboratory module in preparation for return to Earth in October 2021. Right: NASA astronaut Kayla S. Barron inspects chili peppers grown aboard the space station prior to harvest in November 2021. In April 2022, when Crew Dragon Freedom lifted off, Crew-4 included first-time space flyer NASA astronaut Jessica A. Watkins and ESA’s Cristoforetti on her second long-duration flight, marking the first time two women flew aboard a commercial crew vehicle to the space station. Once they joined Expedition 67, Watkins became the first African American woman to join a long-duration crew. With Barron already aboard the station, this marked the first time three women on long-duration spaceflights lived and worked aboard the orbiting laboratory. Left: Crew-4 astronauts Samantha Cristoforetti of the European Space Agency, left, and NASA astronaut Jessica A. Watkins aboard Crew Dragon Freedom. Right: Cristoforetti, left, and Watkins, right, bid farewell to NASA astronaut Kayla S. Barron wearing her SpaceX launch and entry suit as she prepares for her return to Earth with her fellow Crew-3 team mates. In September 2022, Cristoforetti assumed command of the space station, a first for a European woman. When Crew-5 launched aboard Crew Dragon Endurance in October 2022, NASA astronaut Nicole A. Mann became the first Native American woman in space and the first woman to command a Crew Dragon mission, and Anna Y. Kikina of Roscosmos became the first Russian cosmonaut to fly aboard a U.S. commercial vehicle. For the second time, two women commanders, Cristoforetti and Mann, greeted each other as Crew-5 arrived to join Expedition 68. The launch of Crew-5 also marked the first time that five women lived and worked in space at the same time – the four women aboard the space station and Liu Yang aboard China’s Tiangong space station on her second space mission. The launch of Crew-6 in February 2023 marked the first all-male long-duration crew aboard a commercial crew vehicle. The return of Mann and Kikina marked the end of the longest time period with at least one woman living and working in space, 879 days, or 2 years and 5 months. Left: Samantha Cristoforetti of the European Space Agency assumes command of the International Space Station. Right: Space station Commander Cristoforetti greets Crew-5 Commander NASA astronaut Nicole A. Mann and her crew mates. The hiatus in women in space lasted less than six months, during which two women on the Ax-2 mission spent eight days aboard the space station (see below). Renewing a female presence in space, NASA astronaut Jasmin Moghbeli arrived aboard the station in August 2023 as part of Crew-7. NASA astronaut Loral A. O’Hara joined her three weeks later when she arrived as part of the Soyuz MS-24 crew and they together conducted research as part of Expedition 70 as the only two Americans in space. On Nov. 21, 2023, they conducted an all-woman spacewalk, only the second pair of women to do so. Left: NASA astronauts Jasmin Moghbeli, front row center, and Loral A. O’Hara, front row right, and their Expedition 70 crew mates chat with space station program managers to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the orbiting laboratory. Right: O’Hara, left, and Moghbeli, right, prepare for their spacewalk as Roscosmos cosmonaut Nikolai A. Chub assists. The presence of women in space will continue uninterrupted when NASA astronaut Jeannette J. Epps and her fellow Crew 8 crew mates launch to the space station on March 1 for an expected six-month mission. The March 21 launch of Soyuz MS-25 will mark a milestone in spaceflight history as the first time women will form the majority of a crew at launch. Roscosmos cosmonaut Oleg V. Novitskiy will command the flight, accompanied by NASA astronaut Dyson and the first citizen from Belarus to fly in space, Marina V. Vasilevskaya. Dyson, on her second long-duration flight, will remain aboard the station as part of Expedition 71 while Novitskiy and Vasilevskaya return to Earth after 12 days, accompanied by O’Hara who will have spent more than six months aboard the orbiting laboratory. Left: NASA astronaut Jeanette J. Epps, left, and her Crew 7 crew mates during training. Middle: NASA astronaut Tracy C. Dyson with her Soyuz MS-25 crewmates. Right: Epps, left, and Dyson during preflight training for Expedition 71. The story of women in space would not be complete without mention of the two women from the People’s Republic of China who have flown in space. China’s first female astronaut, Liu Yang, launched on June 16, 2012, aboard the Shenzhou-9 spacecraft with her two crewmates, docking with the Tiangong-1 experimental space station two days later. The trio returned to Earth after a 13-day mission. One year later, on June 11, 2013, Wang Yaping and her two crewmates launched aboard Shenzhou-10 for a 14-day visit to Tiangong-1. She conducted science experiments and taught a live physics lessons to school children from aboard the station. Wang returned to space on Oct. 15, 2021, aboard Shenzhou-13 as the first woman to live and work aboard the Tiangong China Space Station. She also conducted the first spacewalk by a Chinese woman. Liu completed her second flight, a six-month mission aboard Tiangong as a member of the Shenzhou-14 crew. Left: Liu Yang, the People’s Republic of China’s first woman in space, aboard the Tiangong-1 space station. Middle: Wang Yaping teaching a physics lesson live from Tiangong-1. Right: Wang during the first spacewalk by a Chinese woman astronaut. Image credits: courtesy of CNSA. Women have been at the forefront of commercial spaceflights. In September 2021, two of the four crew members of the private space mission Inspiration4 were women – Sian H. Proctor, the first African American woman to pilot a spacecraft, and Hayley Arceneaux. They conducted science experiments during their three-day mission aboard the Crew Dragon Resilience spacecraft. The next month, Russian actress Yulia S. Peresild and her director spent 11 days aboard the space station filming scenes for a film entitled “The Challenge” that premiered in April 2023. The second Private Astronaut Mission to the space station, the May 2023 Ax-2 flight included a crew of four spending nine days aboard the orbiting laboratory conducting experiments. Making her fourth visit to the space station, former NASA astronaut Whitson and director of human spaceflight at Axiom Space commanded the Ax-2 flight, becoming the first woman commander of a private space mission. Two mission specialists from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s inaugural astronaut program, including Rayyanah Barnawi, the first Saudi woman in space, served on the crew. Private astronaut missions to the space station represent precursors to privately funded commercial space stations as part of NASA’s efforts to develop a thriving low-Earth orbit ecosystem and marketplace. Left: Sian H. Proctor, left, and Hayley Arceneaux during the Inspiration4 private space mission. Image credit: courtesy Inspiration4. Middle: Russian actress Yulia S. Peresild arrives at the space station. Right: The Ax-2 mission crew includes Mission Specialist Rayyanah Barnawi from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, left, and Commander Peggy A. Whitson of Axiom Space, right. The story continues… Explore More 4 min read NASA Center Boosted YF-12 Supersonic Engine Research Article 1 week ago 11 min read 55 Years Ago: Five Months Until the Moon Landing Article 1 week ago 7 min read 30 Years Ago: Clementine Changes Our View of the Moon Article 2 weeks ago View the full article

Some 74,000 years ago, the Toba volcano in Indonesia exploded with a force 1,000 times more powerful than the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. The mystery is what happened after that – namely, to what degree that extreme explosion might have cooled global temperatures. Crew aboard the International Space Station photographed the eruption of Mount Etna in Sicily in October 2002. Ashfall was reported more than 350 miles away. When it comes to explosive power, however, no eruption in modern times can compare with a super eruption – which hasn’t occurred for tens of thousands of years. NASA When it comes to the most powerful volcanoes, researchers have long speculated how post-eruption global cooling – sometimes called volcanic winter – could potentially pose a threat to humanity. Previous studies agreed that some planet-wide cooling would occur but diverged on how much. Estimates have ranged from 3.6 to 14 degrees Fahrenheit (2 to 8 degrees Celsius). In a new study in the Journal of Climate, a team from NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) and Columbia University in New York used advanced computer modeling to simulate super-eruptions like the Toba event. They found that post-eruption cooling would probably not exceed 2.7 degrees Fahrenheit (1.5 degrees Celsius) for even the most powerful blasts. “The relatively modest temperature changes we found most compatible with the evidence could explain why no single super-eruption has produced firm evidence of global-scale catastrophe for humans or ecosystems,” said lead author Zachary McGraw, a researcher at NASA GISS and Columbia University. To qualify as a super eruption, a volcano must release more than 240 cubic miles (1,000 cubic kilometers) of magma. These eruptions are extremely powerful – and rare. The most recent super-eruption occurred more than 22,000 years ago in New Zealand. The best-known example may be the eruption that blasted Yellowstone Crater in Wyoming about 2 million years ago. Small Particles, Big Questions McGraw and colleagues set out to understand what was driving the divergence in model temperature estimates because “models are the main tool for understanding climate shifts that happened too long ago to leave clear records of their severity.” They settled on a variable that can be difficult to pin down: the size of microscopic sulfur particles injected miles high into the atmosphere. In the stratosphere (about 6 to 30 miles in altitude), sulfur dioxide gas from volcanoes undergoes chemical reactions to condense into liquid sulfate particles. These particles can influence surface temperature on Earth in two counteracting ways: by reflecting incoming sunlight (causing cooling) or by trapping outgoing heat energy (a kind of greenhouse warming effect). Over the years, this cooling phenomenon has also spurred questions about how humans might turn back global warming – a concept called geoengineering – by intentionally injecting aerosol particles into the stratosphere to promote a cooling effect. The researchers showed to what extent the diameter of the volcanic aerosol particles influenced post-eruption temperatures. The smaller and denser the particles, the greater their ability to block sunlight. But estimating the size of particles is challenging because previous super eruptions have not left reliable physical evidence. In the atmosphere, the size of the particles changes as they coagulate and condense. Even when particles fall back to Earth and are preserved in ice cores, they don’t leave a clear-cut physical record because of mixing and compaction. By simulating super-eruptions over a range of particle sizes, the researchers found that super-eruptions may be incapable of altering global temperatures dramatically more than the largest eruptions of modern times. For instance, the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines caused about a half-degree drop in global temperatures for two years. Luis Millán, an atmospheric scientist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California who was not involved in the study, said that the mysteries of super-eruption cooling invite more research. He said the way forward is to conduct a comprehensive comparison of models, as well as more laboratory and model studies on the factors determining volcanic aerosol particle sizes. Given the ongoing uncertainties, Millán added, “To me, this is another example of why geoengineering via stratospheric aerosol injection is a long, long way from being a viable option.” The study, titled “Severe Global Cooling After Volcanic Super-Eruptions? The Answer Hinges on Unknown Aerosol Size,” was published in the Journal of Climate. By Sally Younger Earth Science News Team NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif. sally.m.younger@jpl.nasa.gov Share Details Last Updated Mar 01, 2024 LocationJet Propulsion Laboratory Related TermsEarthEarth's AtmosphereGeneral View the full article

The ISRU Pilot Excavator is tested in a blacked out facility with minimal lighting that mimics the harsh, feature-less terrain of the Moon.NASA The ISRU Pilot Excavator is tested in a blacked out facility with minimal lighting that mimics the harsh, feature-less terrain of the Moon.NASA Harsh, low-angle sunlight, long and dark shadows, and a featureless terrain will make navigation difficult when NASA’s ISRU Pilot Excavator (IPEx) is sent to the Moon. Because of this, the IPEx team has begun testing various approaches to autonomously drive the excavator in a specially constructed rock yard that mimics these environmental conditions. The team plans to publish the data sets from these unique tests later this year. View the full article